This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

ty-.<'      1Q 

MA"          •  •>< 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALlFORNfA; 

LIBRARY, 

JLDS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND    STATES 


COPYRIGHT,  1901, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  August.  1901.      Reprinted  July, 
August,  1902  :  July,  1904. 


NortoooU  $rts» 

J.  8.  CuihinK  *  Co  —Berwick  S  Smith 
Norwood  MM§.  U.8  A. 


F 
9 
E53 


PREFACE 

THIS  Supplement  is  designed  for  use  during  a  portion 
of  one  of  the  closing  years  of  the  grammar  school  course, 
and  is  based  upon  the  previous  books  of  the  Series.  The 
work  accords  with  the  Series  in  its  causal  treatment  of 
geography  and  in  the  full  presentation  of  more  important 
topics.  In  harmony  with  the  chapter  on  Industry  and 
Commerce  in  the  First  Book  on  Home  Geography,  the 
social  and  industrial  life  of  New  England  have  been 
traced  through  their  development  from  pioneer  days,  thus 
making  clear  the  gradual  action  of  geographic  controls, 
and  affording  a  vantage  ground  of  contrast  whereby  pres- 
ent geographic  conditions  may  be  appreciated.  This  his- 
torical treatment  of  New  England  industries  and  the 
related  consideration  of  all  important  cities  has  made  it 
possible  to  avoid  the  uninteresting  lists  of  cities  and 
towns  with  their  products,  which  comprise  so  large  a  part 
of  many  state  supplements.  To  the  same  end,  the  com- 
munities of  each  state  are  considered  collectively  in  the 
physiographic  districts  and  industrial  groups  to  which 
they  belong,  thus  avoiding  useless  repetition  and  leaving 
a  series  of  clear  impressions  which  will  abide  with  the 
pupil. 

Hearty  acknowledgment  for  valuable  criticism  is  not 
only  due  to  the  authors  of  the  Series,  but  also  to  fellow- 
teachers,  notably  Mr.  W.  C.  Moore,  instructor  in  geog- 


yi  PREFACE 

raphy  at  the  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass.  In  addi- 
tion the  several  sections  of  the  Supplement  have  been 
reviewed  by  specialists  having  expert  knowledge  of  the 
topic  therein  treated.  Specially  helpful  suggestions  were 
given  as  to  Physiography  by  Miss  E.  F.  Fisher,  instructor 
in  geography  at  Wellesley  College,  and  by  Mr.  F.  S.  Gul- 
liver of  St.  Mark's  School ;  on  Social  and  Industrial  De- 
velopment, by  Mr.  Henry  Barrett  Learned,  Instructor  in 
History  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  Univer- 
sity ;  on  the  Fishing  Industry,  by  Mr.  John  J.  Pew  of 
Gloucester  ;  on  Lumbering,  by  Mr.  S.  W.  Matthews,  Com- 
missioner of  Industrial  Statistics  in  Maine ;  on  Agricul- 
ture, by  Professor  J.  L.  Hills,  Director  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  of  Vermont,  and  by  Mr.  G.  M.  Whita- 
ker,  Editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer;  on  Quarrying, 
by  Professor  G.  H.  Perkins,  State  Geologist  of  Vermont; 
on  Textile  Manufacturing,  by  Principal  W.  W.  Crosby 
of  the  Lowell  Textile  School  and  by  the  editors  of  the 
Textile  World. 

The  two  relief  maps  were  drawn  from  the  charts  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  by  Mr.  G.  E.  Russell, 
Mr.  A.  B.  White,  and  Mr.  C.  M.  Fosdick,  instructors  in 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Figures  3, 
7,  li;  37,  38,  39,  45,  and  47  are  reproduced  from  photo- 
graphs loaned  for  the  purpose  from  the  Gardner  Collec- 
tion at  Harvard  University.  Photographs  loaned  by  the 
Bangor  &  Aroostook  R.  R.  are  reproduced  in  Figures  24, 
25,  60,  and  61. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PHYSIOGRAPHY 2 

Position  and  Size,  3.     Relief,  3.     Glacial  Forms,  7.    Coast,  12. 
CLIMATE      ............       14 

SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 16 

Settlement,  16.     Early  Commerce,  19.     Early  Manufacturing, 

21.     Railways,  23.     City  and  Country,  25.     Education,  30. 
INDUSTRIES 33 

Fishing :    Development,   33  ;    Banks  Fisheries,  35 ;   Mackerel 
Fishing,  37. 

Lumbering :   Forest  Products,  38  ;  Logging,  39  ;  Driving,  40 ; 
Lumber,  40  ;  Wood  Pulp  and  Paper,  41. 

Agriculture  :    Development,  43 ;    Dairying,   44 ;    Market   Gar- 
dens, 46. 

Quarrying :  Granite,  48. 

Textile  Manufactures  :  Development,  49  ;  Cotton  Manufactur- 
ing, 51  ;  Woollen  Manufacturing,  54. 

Shoe  Manufacture  :  Leather,  57  ;  Development,  57  ;  Distribu- 
tion, 59. 

Manufactures  of  Metals :  Development,  60 ;   Distribution,  60  ; 
Machinery,  61. 

Commerce  :  Trade  Centres,  63  ;  Boston,  63. 
STATES 66 

Massachusetts :   Boston  Basin,  67  ;   Piedmont  Belt,  70 ;    Cape 
Cod,  72  ;  Connecticut  Valley,  74  ;  Uplands  and  Valleys,  75. 

Rhode   Island  :    Providence  and   Vicinity,    77  ;    Narragansett 
Bay,  79  ;  Uplands,  81. 

vii 


viii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAG  It 

Connecticut :  Central  Lowland,  82  ;  Coast,  80  ;  Western  Up- 
land, 87  ;  Eastern  Upland,  89. 

New  Hampshire  :  The  White  Mountains,  91 ;  Piedmont  and 
Merrimac  Valley,  94  ;  Upland  and  Valleys,  97. 

Vermont :  Agriculture,  99  ;  The  Forests,  103  ;  Quarries,  103  ; 
Cities,  105. 

Maine  :  Central  and  Eastern  Maine,  107  ;  Southwestern  Maine, 
110;  Coast,  112. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 115 

SUGGESTIONS       ...        , 120 

APPENDIX  —  STATISTICS  OF  POPULATION  .  123 


THE   NEW   ENGLAND    STATES 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  NEW  ENGLAND 


MAP  QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS.  —  Political  Maps.  (1)  Draw 
an  outline  of  North  America;  show  the  boundaries  of  the  United 
States,  and  darken  the  New  England  States.  (2)  Draw  a  map  of  the 
North  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  indicate  the  course  of  steamers  plying 
between  New  England  and  Europe.  (3)  Compare  the  area  of  the 
New  England  states  with  that  of  one  of  the  other  groups  of  states. 
Use  tracing  paper  and  draw  one  section  within  the  other.  (4)  Com- 
pare the  position  of  the  main  divide  between  rivers  flowing  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  to  the  St.  Lawrence  or  Hudson  rivers  with  the 
position  of  the  northern  boundary  of.  New  England.  (5)  Compare 
the  position  of  this  divide  with  that  of  the  highest  mountain  peaks. 
(6)  Indicate  the  general  form  of  New  England  by  seven  straight 
lines.  (7)  Draw  an  outline  of  the  New  England  states  (Fig.  6). 
Omit  details.  Insert  the  state  boundaries  and  the  large  rivers. 
(8)  Draw  or  trace  the  outlines  of  several  large  lakes  from  the  state 
maps.  In  what  respect  are  the  outlines  alike  ? 

Relief  Maps  (Figs.  2  and  49).  (9)  Reproduce  the  relief  of 
some  part  of  each  map  with  chalk  at  the  blackboard,  or  with  a  soft 
pencil  on  paper.  (10)  Find  on  the  colored  maps  the  names  of  the 
rivers,  mountains,  and  other  features  shown  on  the  relief  maps. 
(11)  Compare  the  relief  maps  with  the  pictures  of  the  same  districts  to 
get  a  better  idea  of  the  surface  form.  (12)  Try  to  describe  briefly  the 
arrangement  of  the  peaks  of  the  White  Mountains.  Is  the  arrange- 
ment regular  or  disorderly?  (13)  Where  is  there  a  long  lowland 
in  western  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  (Fig.  2)  ?  (14)  Find 
rivers  that  flow  for  part  of  their  course  along  narrow  valleys  and 
in  part  through  broad  valleys?  (15)  Where  are  mountains  most 
numerous  and  highest?  (16)  Find  mountains  that  rise  from  aval- 
ley?  (17)  Where  are  there  mountains  rising  from  the  upland? 
(18)  Compare  the  relief  maps  with  state  maps  showing  the  railways. 
How  has  the  relief  influenced  the  course  of  the  railways? 

B  1 


FIG.  2. 
Western  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


Position  and  Size.  —  In  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
United  States,  the  older  Appalachian  ranges,  and  the 
Piedmont  belt  on  their  eastern  base,  broaden  to  form 
the  New  England  upland.  Nearer  Europe  than  any 
other  section  of  our  country,  its  shores  were  those  first 


Fid.  3. 
The  Deerfield  valley  at  Zoar.     A  tributary  valley  enters  at  the  right. 

visited  by  people  from  northern  Europe,  and  settlements 
here  multiplied  early.  Its  position  favors  commerce  with 
Europe.  Although  but  about  one-fiftieth  of  the  area 
of  the  United  States,  New  England  has  a  fifteenth  of  the 
total  population  of  the  country,  and  a  still  larger  propor- 
tion of  its  wealth.  The  study  of  this  marked  develop- 
ment of  the  land's  resources  by  its  sturdy  people  may  well 
be  interesting. 

Relief.  —  What  kind  of  a  land  is  it  ?     Travelling  inland 
from  the  coast,  one  sees  everywhere  hills  and  valleys  of 


4  NEW  ENGLAND 

varied  form ;  in  fact,  the  country  seems  all  hills.  Still 
farther  inland  the  main  valleys  are  deep,  arid  when  one 
climbs  a  hill,  broad  tracts  of  rolling  country  are  seen  at 
about  the  same  height  as  the  hilltops  near  the  rivers 
(Fig.  47).  This  upland  surface  often  suggests  a  plain, 
in  contrast  with  the  steep-sided  valleys  or  with  the  moun- 
tains that  rise  singly  and  in  groups  above  it.  Indeed,  if 
the  valleys  were  filled,  a  great  rolling  plain  would  result. 
The  hard  crystalline  rocks  of  this  mountain-studded 


View  from  Canada  border,  over  Lake  Memphremagog.      Notice  the  Green 
Mountains  rising  from  the  upland  of  Vermont. 

plateau  and  the  folded  and  broken  strata  tell  us  that  it 
is  the  remnant  of  ancient  mountains.  During  long-past 
ages  weathering  and  river  action  slowly  wore  away  the 
mountain  folds  to  a  rather  even  surface,  sloping  gently  to 
the  sea.  Some  of  the  rocks,  however,  were  too  resistant 
to  yield,  and  rose  above  the  almost-plain,  or  peneplain,  as 
rocky  hills  or  mountains  (Figs.  24  and  49).  Finally, 
the  earth's  crust  was  gently  raised,  changing  the  low 
peneplain  to  an  upland,  one  or  two  thousand  feet  high 
in  the  interior,  sloping  to  the  Atlantic  and  toward 
the  Hudson  and  St.  Lawrence  valleys.  The  rivers  flowed 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


swiftly  down  these  slopes  and  slowly  cut  out  many  deep 
valleys.  Where  the  rocks  are  easily  worn,  as  in  the  Con- 
necticut Valley  below  Greenfield,  the  valleys  are  broad  / 
elsewhere  they  are  narrow  and  have  steep  side  slopes. 


Looking  north  from  above  Franconia  Notch  (p.  93),  White  Mountains.    Echo 
Lake,  Profile  House,  and  Eagle  Cliff  in  foreground. 


The  elevations  above  the  upland  are  irregular  in  form  (Fig. 
49)  and  distribution.  Some,  like  the  summits  of  Mt.  Desert 
Island,  rise  near  the  coast;  others,  such  as  Mt.  Monadnock 
in  New  Hampshire,  rise  singly  from  the  upland.  The  Green 
Mountains  extend  north  and  south  through  Vermont;  and  a 
succession  of  peaks,  of  which  Mt.  Katahdin  is  the  highest, 
crosses  Maine.  The  White  Mountains  form  an  extensive  moun- 
tainous area  in  New  Hampshire,  where  Mt.  Washington  and 
some  other  peaks  rise  over  a  mile  above  sea  level. 


6 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Population  and  industries  are  closely  related  to  these 
divisions  of  upland,  valleys,  and  mountains.  In  the  lower, 
or  Piedmont  !><>lt,  near  the  coast,  with  its  open,  connected 

valleys,  where 
railways  may 
easily  branch, 
busy  cities  and 
populous  towns 
are  numerous. 
Inland  the  rail- 
ways must  fol- 
low the  bottoms 
of  the  valleys 
(Figs.  3  and  47) 
to  obtain  easy 
grades,  and 
many  people  are 
grouped  along 
these  lines  of 
communication . 
There  are  scat- 
tered farms  and 
small  villages 
over  the  south- 
ern part  of  the 


FIG.  6. 

1,  the  Boston  Basin:    2,  Narragansett  Basin: 
Connecticut  valley  lowland. 


3,  the 


upland,  while 
forests  cover  the 

higher  northern  portion.     On  the  mountains  hardly  any 
one  lives,  but  large  numbers  visit  them  in  summer  time. 

The  densest  population  is  upon  a  few  sections  where  weaker 
rocks  have  been  worn  down  to  broad  lowlands  (Fig.  6),  as 
about  Boston,  near  Providence,  and  in  the  Connecticut  Valley 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  7 

(Fig.  2).  These  weaker  rocks  were  long  ago  deposited  as  sedi- 
ment in  bays,  formed  by  the  sinking  of  the  mountainous  land 
of  ancient  New  England.  As  the  Chesapeake  Bay  is  now 
being  slowly  filled,  so  a  great  depth  of  sediment  accumulated 
in  the  ancient  bays.  By  later  uplifts  these  rocks  were  added 
to  the  land,  and  then  were  slowly  worn  down  to  lowlands. 

Naturally  these  districts  are  still  river  basins,  since  their 
sandstones,  shales,  etc.,  are  more  easily  worn  than  the  hard  rocks 
of  their  rims.  Wherever  hard  lava  beds  or  strata  of  conglom- 
erate are  found,  they  have  weathered  less,  and  therefore  rise 
above  the  lowlands.  Illustrations  are  the  rocky  districts  in 
the  southern  part  of  Boston,  the  islands  of  Narragansett  Bay, 
and  the  long  lava  ridges  of  the  Connecticut  Valley  (Fig.  45), 
which  extend  southward  from  Mounts  Tom  and  Holyoke. 

'Glacial  Forms. — Thus  far  the  New  England  upland 
and  the  Piedmont  belt  of  the  Southern  States  have  much 
the  same  story  ;  each  is  a  low  upland  carved  by  valleys, 
dotted  with  old  mountains,  and  having  several  lowland 
basins.  In  the  Virginia  Piedmont  belt  there  are  few 
lakes  or  falls,  since  the  streams  have  had  time  to  cut  their 
valleys  to  a  steady,  gentle  grade,  and  the  river  water  is 
muddy  with  the  clays  from  the  deeply  weathered  rock. 
In  New  England,  on  the  other  hand,  the  surface  is  strewn 
with  lakes  (Fig.  4),  and  the  beautiful,  clear  water  of 
brooks  "arid  rivers  goes  sparkling  and  dancing  in  rapids 
and  falls  along  the  valleys.  You  have  already  learned 
that  this  is  because  northern  North  America  was  once 
deeply  covered  by  a  glacier,  as  is  Greenland  to-day. 

As  the  glacier  pushed  slowly  southward,  the  weathered 
rock  was  scoured  away,  and  the  hard  ledges  were  worn  to 
the  rounded  outlines  which  they  still  retain.  The  rock 
waste  scoured  from  mountains,  upland,  and  valleys  was 
moved  along  in  the  ice  to  where  the  glacier  ended.  The 


8 


NEW  ENGLAND 


ice  front  long  remained  near  the  southern  New  England 
coast,  and  the  waste  that  was  deposited  there,  while  the 
glacier  moved  forward  and  melted,  formed  great  lines  of 
irregular  hillocks,  called  moraines.  Streams  from  the 
glacier  washed  much  sand  and  gravel  forward  and  spread  it 
out  in  sloping  plains.  Therefore  Cape  Cod  and  the  islands 
south  of  New  England  consist  of  moraine  hills  and  sandy 
plains  sloping  gently  to  their  southern  coasts  (Fig.  6). 


FIG.  7. 
Moraine  hills,  Cape  Cod. 

North  of  Cape  Cod  the  rock  waste  was  sprinkled  over 
the  ocean  floor  by  icebergs  from  the  glacier  front,  which 
then  stood  in  the  open  sea.  Thus  hard,  pebbly  bottoms 
were  formed  near  the  mainland  and  also  on  the  shallow 
banks  far  offshore.  On  such  bottoms  seaweed  grows  well, 
and  there  is  an  abundance  of  the  lower  forms  of  animal  life, 
which  serve  as  food  for  cod,  halibut,  and  other  food-fish. 

When  the  glacier  finally  retreated,  all  the  materials  in 
the  ice,  from  large  boulders  to  finest  rock  flour,  were 
dropped  together  as  boulder  clay,  or  till,  which  forms  the 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


9 


basis  of  our  present  soil.  As  this  soil  is  the  mingled  waste 
from  many  places,  and  time  has  not  yet  been  given  for  it 
to  decay  deeply,  or  to  be  enriched  by  the  addition  of  much 
organic  matter,  it  is  nowhere  highly  fertile.  It  is  a  lasting 
soil  under  cultivation,  however,  since  its  rock  fragments 
are  gradually  decaying  and  setting  free  plant  food. 

At  some  distance  from  the  main  terminal  moraines  are  re- 
gions where  till  collected  in  great  mounds  beneath  the  glacier, 
and  was  compacted  into  finely  curving  hills  called  drumlins. 
Hundreds  of  drumlins  occur  in  irregular  groups  scattered  over 


Fio.  8. 
Drumlin,  near  Ipswich,  Mass. 

both  valleys  and  lower  uplands;  for  instance,  in  the  Boston 
Basin,  and  along  the  Merrimac  in  Massachusetts,  where  Whit- 
tier  says,  "the  hills  roll  wave-like  inland."  They  are  also 
abundant  near  Worcester,  and  thence  extend  into  Connecticut 
and  New  Hampshire.  Being  free  from  ledges,  and  having  an 
even  surface,  many  were  early  cleared  of  trees  and  tilled. 

Streams  flowing  from  beneath  the  glacier  built  many  deltas  in 
temporary  lakes  formed  where  the  retreating  glacier  for  a  time 
dammed  valleys.  These  deltas  exist  to-day  as  sand-j)lains,  which 
are  found  abundantly  over  the  lower  portions  of  New  England. 
Their  porous  soil  is  often  marked  by  dry  pastures  or  scrubby 
woodlands.  Clay  collected  in  beds  farther  from  the  ice  front, 
and  is  to-day  used  for  bricks.  Most  of  the  clay  was  deposited 


10  NEW  ENGLAND 

in  the  ocean,  and  only  in  Maine  lias  the  uplift  of  the  land 
been  sufficient  to  raise  these  clay  beds  above  the  sea. 

Moraines  were  also  formed  here  and  there  as  the  glacier 
paused  in  its  retreat,  and  its  load  of  waste  was  so  irregu- 
larly deposited  that  many  valleys  were  dammed,  thus 
forming  most  of  our  numerous  lakes.  Many  of  the  smaller 
and  shallower  glacial  ponds  have  been  filled  by  stream 
deposits  and  plant  growth,  and  are  now  swamps  and  mead- 
ows. Often  the  glacial  deposits  have  turned  streams 
from  their  courses  over  low  divides.  Where  these  streams 
tumble  over  the  steeper  slopes  there  are  rapids  and  falls ; 
and  some  streams  have  worn  small  gorges,  which  have  an 
origin  similar  to  that  of  the  famous  gorge  of  the  Niagara 
River.  The  larger  rivers  remain  in  their  former  valleys 
for  the  most  part,  but  here  also  there  are  occasional  falls 
where  the  rivers  have  uncovered  ledges,  as  explained  below. 

As  the  glacier  retreated,  the  rivers  were  overburdened  with 
/sediment  from  the  melting  ice;   and  broad,  sandy  flood-plains 
(were  formed   in  the  valleys,  the  deposits  often  being  deep 
( enough  to  cover  rocky  knolls.     Since  then  the  rivers  have  been 
/  able  partly  to  cut  away  these  flood-plains  (Fig.  10),  and  as  they 
have  changed  their  courses  from  side  to  side,  ever  cutting  deeper, 
terraces  have  been  left  to  mark  the  different  levels.     Houses 
and  roads  are  on  the  upper  terraces,  safe  from  floods,  while  the 
moister  and  more  fertile  farm  lands  are  on  the  present  flood- 
plains  and  lower  levels.     These  terraced  plains  form  the  beau- 
tiful elm-dotted   intervales  along  New  England   rivers.      In 
cutting  their  channels  such  rivers  have  happened  on  some  of 
these  buried  ledges   (Fig.  14),  and  have  formed  falls  where 
the  water  tumbles   over  the   rocks.     Where  such  falls  occur 
toward    the    mouths    of    large   rivers,   they   afford   our   most 
valuable    water   power    (p.   23).      Why    especially    valuable 
there  ? 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


FIG.  0. 

Glacial  sands  and  gravels,  now  covered  by  the  waters  of  the  Nashua  Reser- 
voir (p.  69) .  The  upper  view  shows  gravel  ridges  formed  of  the  coarse  rock- 
waste  deposited  in  the  ice  channels  of  streams  flowing  beneath  the  glacier. 
There  are  many  miles  of  such  ridges  scattered  over  New  England.  The 
middle  view  shows  an  extensive  sand-plain,  once  a  delta.  Below  is  pictured 
a  little  valley  in  the  sand-plain,  formed  when  a  mass  of  ice  that  had  been 
buried  in  the  sand  melted.  Such  kettle  holes  are  common  in  sand-plains. 


!•_'  NEW  ENGLAND 

From  the  days  of  the  first  grist  mill  these  falls  have 
Invii  of  giv;it  importance  to  New  Kngland.  'The  forests, 
the  porous  glacial  soil,  and  the  great  natural  reservoirs  of 
the  many  lakes,  all  combine  to  hold  back  the  water  of  heavy 
rains  and  deliver  it  in  a  steady  flow.  This  water  power 
has  given  a  basis  for  the  start  of  very  important  manufac- 
turing industries.  It  is  to-day  being  still  further  developed, 
and  its  usefulness  extended  by  generating  electricity. 

Coast. — After  the  peneplain  had  been  raised,  and  this 
upland  cut  by  valleys  to  nearly  its  present  form,  the  coastal 


FIG.  10. 

Bank  of  Connecticut  River,  Hadley,  Mass.  Looking  toward  Mt.  Tom  and 
Mt.  Holyoke.  The  river  has  almost  cut  away  the  road.  The  lowest  terrace 
is  at  the  right,  the  broad  second  terrace  at  the  centre  and  left. 

belt  was  slowly  depressed.  This  permitted  the  sea  to  cover 
the  lower  portions  of  the  uneven  land  and  thus  form  a  very 
irregular  coast  line.  Our  harbors  are  simply  drowned  val- 
leys, while  the  tide  flows  far  inland  along  the  larger  rivers, 
notably  the  Connecticut,  Penobscot,  and  Kennebec.  The 
islands  and  peninsulas  of  the  very  irregular  coast  of  Maine 
(Fig.  11)  are  the  higher  hilltops  of  that  part  of  the  upland. 
This  rugged  coast  has  strongly  influenced  the  indus- 
tries of  the  section.  The  many  good  harbors  have 
enabled  .the  development  of  fishing,  shipbuilding,  and 


PHYSIOGRAPHY  13 

commerce  (p.  20)  ;  and  since  commerce  is  necessary  for 
extensive  manufacturing,  the  coast  line  has  influenced  that 
important  industry  also. 

The  waves  are  at  work  making  cliffs  on  the  headlands, 
while  the  currents  carry  the  waste  along  shore  to  form  pocket 
beaches  in  the  coves,  or  to  build  bars  across  the  shallow  bays, 
as  between  Casco  Bay  and  Cape  Ann  (Fig.  35).  The  exposed 
morainic  sands  of  Cape  Cod,  which  the  waves  are  wearing 
away  (Fig.  39),  have  supplied  the  sand  which  has  been  swept 


FIG.  11. 
Bar  Harbor,  Maine. 

northward  to  build  the  hooked  spit  at  Provincetown,  with  its 
drifting  sand-dune  hills,  and  southward  to  form  Monomoy 
Island,  q,  barren  sandbar.  In  the  protected  lagoons,  behind 
sandbars,  and  in  shallow  harbors  along  the  coast,  the  waste 
has  been  built  up  into  grassy  'salt  marshes  (Figs.  37  and  46). 

On  harborless  sandbar  coasts  and  along  the  dangerous  reefs 
and  winding  channels  of  rocky  shores,  there  are  numerous 
lighthouses  (Fig.  39)  to  guide  the  coasting  schooners  and  other 
craft.  The  United  States  government  also  maintains  life- 
saving  stations,  where  men  are  ever  on  the  watch  during 
the  stormy  part  of  the  year,  ready  to  rescue  lives  from  wrecks. 
The  nation  spends  much  money  also  in  dredging  harbor  chan- 


14 


NEW  ENGLAND 


FIG.  12. 

Life  boat,  Cape  Cod.     The  wreck  and  line  of  breakers  mark  a  shoal  formed  by 
sands  swept  northward  from  the  Cape  Cod  cliffs. 

nels  to  make  them  deep  enough  for  modern  vessels,  and  in 
making  harbors  of  refuge  where  natural  ports  are  lacking. 

SUMMARY.  -*-  The,  New  England  upland  is  an  old  mourt- 
tain  region,  worn  to  a  low  plateau,  or  peneplain,  above  which 
mountains  rise,  and  into  which  valleys  have  been  cut, 
dividing  much  of  the  surface  into  hills.  Most  people  live  in 
the  broad  valleys  near  the  coast.  The  glacier  has  left  a 
stony  soil,  and  many  moraines,  drumlins,  and  sand  plains, 
damming  the  valleys  with  waste  at  many  points  and  causing 
lakes  and  falls,  which  afford  water  power.  The  land  has 
sunk,  giving  an  irregular  coast  line  and  many  harbors. 


CLIMATE 

New  England  is  midway  between  the  equator  and  the 
north  pole,  not  so  far  north  that  its  harbors  are  closed  by 
ice  in  winter,  nor  so  far  south  that  the  climate  lessens 
the  vigor  of  its  people.  Since  the  westerly  winds  bring 
the  changing  temperature  of  the  interior,  New  England 
winters  are  severe;  but  the  summers  are  warm  enough  for 
the  growth  of  all  the  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables  of  cool 


CLIMATE  15 

temperate  lands.  The  early  English  settlers  did  not 
understand  this,  but  expected  to  find  mild  winters  in  these 
latitudes,  farther  south  than  their  homeland,  where,  winds 
from  over  the  warm  ocean  moderate  the  cold  of  winter. 
The  disappointment  and  disaster  due  to  the  unforeseen 
severity  of  the  winter  season  explain  the  failure  of  early 
settlements  and  the  hardships  of  the  Pilgrims. 

The  great  extent  of  New  England  from  north  to  south, 
and  the  contrast  between  the  cold  waters  of  the  Labrador 
current  north  of  Cape  Cod  and  those  influenced  by  the 
Gulf  Stream  to  the  south,  give  much  variety  of  climate. 
Thus  while  the  forested  uplands  near  the  Canada  border 
are  buried  deep  with  snow,  there  is  little  sleighing  on  the 
lowlands  near  the  southern  coast. 

Not  only  does  New  England  lie  on  a  leeward  coast,  with 
both  cold  arid  warm  currents  near  by,  but  also  in  the  usual 
path  of  the  cyclonic  storms  from  the  west  and  occasionally  of 
hurricanes  from  the  West  Indies.  Its  weather  from  autumn 
to  spring  is  therefore  disagreeably  stormy  and  changeable. 
Because  the  lower  air  moves  from  all  directions  toward  the 
centre  of  an  area  of  low  pressure,  the  passage  of  a  storm  is 
marked  by  changing  winds.  Southeast  winds  from  the  Gulf 
Stream  bring  winter  rains  as  they  rise  over  the  upland.  Such 
a  wind  may  change  to  a  cold  "northeaster"  with  driving 
snow,  —  a  "  blizzard,"  strewing  the  coast  with  wrecks.  As  a 
storm  passes  out  to  sea,  the  prevailing  northwest  winds  of 
winter  bring  the  clear  skies  of  a  cold  wave,  with  the  mer- 
cury often  well  below  zero  on  the  uplands.  Then  the  south- 
west winds  —  in  advance  of  another  area  of  low  pressure  — 
may  change  the  snow  of  southern  New  England  to  the  slush 
of  a  "  January  thaw."  Similarly  the  frosts  of  clear  nights  in 
spring  and  fall  occur  during  periods  of  northwest  winds  ;  and 
the  hot  spells  of  summer  are  due  to  the  southwest  winds 
which  prevail  at  that  season. 


16 


.V /•;»•"  ENGLAND 


In  summer  the  sun  is  high  in  the  sky  at  noon,  and  the  con- 
trasts between  day  and  night  are  marked.     While  the  days 

are  often  intensely  hot, — 
except  near  the  coast,  where 
the  refreshing  sea  breeze  is 
felt,  —  the  nights  are  usually 
clear  and  comfortable.  Cu- 
mulus clouds  fleck  the  sum- 
mer sky,  forming  in  the 
forenoon  when  the  sun  has 
so  heated  the  ground  that 
the  cut-rents  of  heated  air 
FIG.  13. 


A  large  cumulus  cloud.    Compare  Fig.  5. 


rise  actively.  Sometimes, 
as  the  clouds  grow  larger, 
afternoon  thunder  showers 
drift  eastward  across  New  England.  These  summer  showers 
supplement  the  winter  storms,  and  serve  to  distribute  the 
rainfall  through  the  year,  thus  favoring  both  agriculture  and 
those  manufacturing  interests  which  depend  upon  water  power. 
The  sudden  and  severe  changes  in  winter  make  the  climate 
of  New  England  a  difficult  one  for  weak  constitutions.  Con- 
sumption has  long  been  a  scourge  here.  Robust  people, 
however,  are  not  injured  by  the  severe  climate,  and  it  has  had 
share  in  moulding  the  characteristics  of  the  Yankee. 

SUMMARY.  —  New  England  has  cold  winters  and  hot 
summers,  because  the  prevailing  westerlies  blow  from  over 
North  America.  This  was  quite  unexpected  to  the  early 
settlers  from  England.  The  changing  winds  of  passing 
cyclones  give  repeated  sudden  changes  in  the  weather,  both 
in  summer  and  in  winter. 


SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

Settlement.  —  To  understand  the  social  and  industrial 
life  of  New  England  to-day,  we  roust  know  something  of 


SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL    DEVELOPMENT  17 

the  people  who  settled  there,  and  of  the  development 
of  their  industries.  For  this  purpose  let  us  call  to 
mind  the  story  of  the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans,  trace  their 
extension  over  New  England,  and  note  the  development 
of  their  simple  mode  of  life  into  the  complex  conditions 
of  the  present  century. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  cause  of 
popular  liberty  seemed  hopeless  throughout  Europe.  Many 
people  were  ready  to  leave  the  rule  of  king  and  bishop  in 
England,  in  order  to  found  a  new  English  home  in  North 
America,  where  they  might  govern  both  church  and  state 
as  they  willed. 

First  came  the  little  band  of  Pilgrims,  who,  contrary  to 
their  plan  of  settling  south  of  the  Hudson  River,  were 
driven  by  autumn  storms  to  the  north  of  Cape  Cod.  So 
stout-hearted  were  they  that,  in  spite  of  many  deaths,  the 
little  colony  remained  at  Plymouth,  and  proved  that  in 
this  land  of  cold  and  stormy  winters  successful  settlement 
was  possible.  As  matters  grew  rapidly  worse  in  England, 
the  Puritan  leaders  secured  a  charter  from  the  king  to 
plant  a  colony  on  Massachusetts  Bay.  This  led  a  large 
emigration  hither,  the  first  settlements  being  about  Salem 
and  Boston.  Over  twenty-five  thousand  people  came  to 
southern  New  England  in  ten  years  ;  but  then  the  move- 
ment nearly  ceased,  because  new  hope  arose  that  the  con- 
test for  political  freedom  in  England  would  be  successful. 

These  settlers  were  all  English,  most  of  them  coming 
from  a  few  counties  of  eastern  England.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  very  few  Scotch  Presbyterians  and  French 
Huguenots,  who  came  later,  they  remained  for  a  century 
and  a  half  to  multiply  and  to  possess  the  land  without 
the  intervention  of  others.  No  other  section  or  country 


18  NEW  ENGLAND 

has  been  thus  settled  by  a  large  body  of  distinctively  Eng- 
lish people  of  the  middle  classes.  They  were  the  best  of 
English  blood,  including  many  country  squires  and  people 
of  means  and  education  from  English  towns.  There  were 
sturdy  farmers,  prosperous  tradesmen,  skilful  craftsmen, 
hardy  seamen,  —  and  all  were  as  thrifty  and  energetic 
as  have  been  the  best  of  their  descendants  to  this  day. 

The  movement  of  so  many  people  to  a  land  of  savages, 
in  the  little  ships  of  those  times,  was  really  wonderful ;  and, 
because  of  the  hardships  to  be  endured,  only  the  more 
determined  and  vigorous  left  their  homes.  Accordingly 
the  people  of  New  England  have  been  a  distinct  type  in 
American  life,  even  as  the  land  is  a  distinct  surface  fea- 
ture. Their  energy,  love  of  education,  and  habit  of  local 
self-government  have  been  carried  by  their  children  west- 
ward through  all  the  northern  states  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Puritans  did  not  believe  in  religious  freedom,  and 
bitter  disputes  over  religious  and  political  matters  arose 
at  the  start.  This  led  many  settlers  to  leave  Massachusetts 
and  found  groups  of  towns  about  Hartford  and  New  Haven, 
Providence  and  Newport,  and  within  the  colony  of  New 
Hampshire.  The  southern  settlements  were  formed  into 
the  colonies  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  under  royal 
charters.  Maine  and  Plymouth  were  united  to  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Colony  by  the  king.  Thus  were  laid  the 
foundations  of  several  New  England  states. 

Most  of  the  early  villages  were  scattered  along  the  coast  and 
along  the  fertile  terraces  of  the  Connecticut  Valley,  where  they 
could  communicate  with  each  other  by  water.  However,  set- 
tlements were  pushed  inland  along  the  valleys,  until  checked 
by  the  long  and  bloody  struggle,  of  King  Philip's  War.  The 
sickness  that  carried  off  so  many  of  the  Indians  between  Nar- 


SOCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   DEVELOPMENT  19 

ragansett  Bay  and  the  Penobscot  River,  together  with  the  ter- 
rible destruction  of  the  Pequots  when  that  tribe  attacked  the 
Connecticut  River  settlements,  opened  the  way  to  the  founding 
of  many  towns.  But  even  after  the  destruction  of  the  Indians 
of  southern  New  England,  attacks  by  French  and  Indians 
from  the  north,  during  the  several  colonial  wars,  made  the 
extension  of  settlements  dangerous  and  slow.  After  Queen 
Anne's  War,  however,  farms  were  pushed  outward  over  the 
uplands  of  southern  New  England  (Fig.  53).  Thus,  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century  the  frontier  had  reached  the  Canadian 
border  of  Vermont,  and  the  great  forest  belt  of  the  White  Moun- 
tains and  Maine.  Since  then  there  has  been  little  further  occu- 
pation of  the  land,  except  in  the  valleys  of  Aroostook  County, 
along  the  northeastern  border  of  Maine  (p.  109). 

New  England  life  changed  slowly  during  the  two  pioneer 
centuries.  The  families  that  gathered  before  the  great  fire- 
places were  large,  and  as  the  children  married  they  moved  on 
and  took  up  new  land.  Here  they  cleared  the  forest,  piled  the 
boulders  into  stone  walls,  and  raised  on  their  farms  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  including  grain  and  meat,  which  are  now  brought 
from  the  West. 

Travel  was  difficult  over  the  poor  roads,  so  every  commu- 
nity depended  on  itself,  and  every  farmer  was  an  independent 
manufacturer.  He  built  his  own  house,  fashioned  rude  furni- 
ture, raised  wool  and  flax  for  homespun  clothing,  made  his  own 
soap  and  candles,  and  in  many  cases  made  his  own  shoes 
from  hides  tanned  with  hemlock  bark ;  in  fact,  he  met  all  the 
necessities  of  shelter,  food,  and  clothing.  There  was  hard 
work  for  all  the  household,  save  on  the  day  of  strict  Sunday 
rest ;  even  the  amusements  were  neighborhood  gatherings  for 
house-raisings  and  corn-huskings,  spinning-bees  or  quilting- 
bees.  While  this  movement  to  the  frontier  continued,  no 
large  towns  could  develop,  and  in  1800  Boston  was  the  only 
town  as  large  as  the  smaller  cities  of  Massachusetts  to-day. 

Early  Commerce. — The  tide  of  human  life  had  hardly 
risen  over  the  uplands  to  the  mountain  slopes,  when  it 


20  NEW  ENGLAND 

began  to  recede  slowly.  There  were  lands  of  greater  fer- 
tility in  New  York  and  the  prairies  beyond,  and  many 
sought  new  homes  westward.  The  older  towns  had  long 
passed  the  pioneer  stage,  and  their  growing  prosperity 
called  for  goods  from  over  the  seas.  This  led  many  young 
men  of  enterprise  and  ability  to  leave  the  quiet,  plodding 
life  of  the  farm  to  seek  the  opportunities  of  a  growing 
commerce  in  the  stirring  seaport  towns.  At  every  shel- 
tered harbor,  and  at  every  river  mouth,  little  vessels  were 
built,  for  which  the  forests  supplied  abundant  material ; 
and  these  craft  carried  fish,  lumber,  and  surplus  farm 
products  to  England,  southern  Europe,  and  the  West 
Indies.  After  independence  was  secured,  trading  voyages 
were  extended  to  China  and  the  East  Indies  ;  and  manu- 
factured goods  and  tropical  products  were  brought  home. 

The  farmers  and  villagers  sent  their  products  to  the 
nearest  ports,  because  only  rough  roads  connected  the 
harbors  with  interior  places,  and  transportation  was  costly. 
Many  coast  towns  shared  the  commerce,  therefore,  and 
grew  rich  on  its  profits.  From  the  more  remote  uplands 
the  farmers  made  annual  trips,  with  heavily  laden  wagons, 
to  the  larger  ports,  returning  with  lighter  loads  of  goods 
purchased  from  the  merchants. 

A  century  ago  SALEM  was  the  second  town  in  New 
England  (p.  124),  with  more  shipping  than  any  other  port 
of  the  nation.  In  those  days  PROVIDENCE  (p.  77)  had  a 
larger  fleet  of  vessels  than  New  York,  and  PORTLAND  long 
maintained  a  more  extensive  trade  with  the  West  Indies 
than  either  Boston  or  New  York.  MIDDLETOWN  was  once 
the  largest  town  of  Connecticut ;  but  like  many  places 
whose  early  commerce  gave  them  importance,  it  has  been 
outstripped  by  those  better  situated  for  later  conditions. 


SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT          21 

As  competition  increased,  swifter  and  larger  vessels  came 
into  use,  and  New  England  master  builders  developed  the  type 
of  clipper  ships  which  surpassed  in  speed  the  vessels  of  other 
nations,  and  gained  for  the  United  States  a  large  share  of  the 
carrying  trade  of  the  world.  Their  voyages  are  still  a  wonder, 
even  in  this  day  of  swift  steamers.  The  Flying  Scud,  for 
example,  sailed  five  hundred  miles  during  one  favorable  day. 

Shipbuilding  naturally  became  centred  at  a  few  places  where 
the  more  skilful  masters  and  workmen  were  located.  More- 
over, as  ships  increased  in  size,  only  the  deeper  harbors  could 
be  used  extensively,  and  smaller  ports  declined  in  importance. 
But  after  the  Civil  War  the  making  of  iron  steamships  in 
England,  and  other  causes,  brought  about  a  decline  in  wooden 
shipbuilding  in  America.  The  construction  of  barges  and  great 
four  and  five  masted  schooners  at  BATH  and  a  few  other  Maine 
ports  (p.  114)  is  now  the  most  important  form  of  the  industry. 

The  increase  of  population  in  the  interior  demanded 
better  means  of  transportation  between  inland  towns  and 
the  seacoast  than  the  roads  afforded.  Many  canals  were 
planned,  and  two  were  built,  one  from  Lowell  to  Boston, 
another  from  New  Haven  to  Northampton.  But  the  ex- 
tension of  canals  was  checked  by  the  invention  of  the 
steam  engine  and  the  construction  of  railways.  •  In  time 
railways  were  built  to  all  parts  of  New  England,  radi- 
ating from  the  harbors  most  favorably  situated,  and  the 
less  favorably  situated  ports  lost  their  commercial  impor- 
tance in  consequence.  While  coasting  vessels  still  bring 
coal,  building  materials,  etc.,  to  many  coast  cities,  the  for- 
eign commerce  of  New  England  at  the  present  day  is 
mainly  carried  on  from  Boston  and  from  New  York  City. 

Early  Manufacturing.  —  In  colonial  times,  England  re- 
stricted the  manufacture  of  goods  in  New  England  in 
order  that  she  might  compel  the  purchase  of  her  own 


NEW  ENGLAND 


products.  But  when  the  Revolution  secured  industrial 
freedom,  New  England  used  the  wealth  gained  in  com- 
merce to  erect  other  factories  than  the  early  saw  and  grist 
mills.  Many  hands  were  needed  to  care  for  the  machinery, 

and  thus  the  move- 
ment of  population 
from  the  uplands 
to  the  valleys 
greatly  increased. 
The  Embargo 
Act  of  1807  and 
the  War  of  1812 
checked  our  com- 
merce, and  the 
consequent  lack 
of  manufactured 
goods  led  the  mer- 
chants to  invest 
their  idle  capital  in 
manufacturing.  In  the  years  that  followed,  water  rights 
were  secured  at  the  falls  of  our  large  rivers,  and  dams1 
were  built  at  great  cost  (Fig.  14).  The  abundant  waters 
were  led  along  the  valley  sides  in  canals,  which  could  sup- 
ply water  power  for  rows  of  factories  built  beside  them. 
Thus  the  cities  of  LOWELL,  LAWRENCE,  MANCHESTER, 
LEWISTON,  and  HOLYOKE  sprang  into  existence. 

As  the  use  of  steam  power  increased,  many  cities  that . 
were  able  to  obtain  coal  cheaply  by  water  replaced  their  fail- 
ing commerce  by  manufacturing  interests.  SALEM,  NEW 
BEDFORD,  PROVIDENCE,  NEW  HAVEN,  and  BRIDGEPORT 
are  prominent  cities  of  this  type.  This  introduction  of 
steam  aided  the  towns,  such  as  HARTFORD,  TAUNTON^ 


FIG.  14. 

Granite  face  of  dam  at  Holyoke,  one-fifth  of  a 
mile  long.  Notice  the  gate  house,  on  the  farther 
side,  whence  canals  lead  through  Holyoke. 


SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   DEVELOPMENT          23 

and  HAVERHILL,  that  had  developed  at  the  limit  of  navi- 
gation on  rivers.  It  was  likewise  of  advantage  to  those 
whose  situation,  where  falls  occur,  close  to  tidewater,  had 
from  the  first .  combined  cheap  water  power  and  facility 
for  importing  raw  materials.  Illustrations  of  this  class  are 
AUGUSTA,  BRUNSWICK,  BIDDEFORD,  SACO,  DOVER,  FALL 
RIVER,  PAWTUCKET,  and  NORWICH.  Other  inland  manu- 
facturing cities  rose  to  importance  because  of  their  railway 
connections,  notably  WORCESTER  and  SPRINGFIELD.  A 
few  railway  towns,  like  MERIDEN  and  NEW  BRITAIN, 
have  become  thriving  cities  because  of  the  special  busi- 
ness talent  of  their  citizens.  Make  a  map  of  New  Eng- 
land and  indicate  upon  it  the  position  of  these  cities. 

Railways.  —  The  new  industrial  conditions,  as  a  result  of 
which  goods  were  manufactured  in  city  factories  instead  of  in 
farm  homes,  demanded  railways  to  bring  raw  materials  and  to 
remove  the  products  to  market.  Therefore  railways  were 
extended  inland  along  the  valleys.  The  Berkshire  upland  was 
crossed  by  one  line,  and  a  tunnel  under  Hoosac  Mountain  made 
way  for  another  line  from  the'  Deerfield  valley  to  that  of  the 
Hoosac.  Both  of  these,  by  connecting  Boston  with  the  West, 
have  contributed  largely  to  that  city's  growth.  Trace  (Fig.  35) 
the'-  valleys  followed  by  these  two  lines.  Note  also  how  the 
railways  follow  the  valleys  in  crossing  the  uplands  of  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont.  (Fig.  54.) 

I  Very. naturally,  for  economy  and  ease  of  working,  connect- 
ing railways  were  combined  into  through  lines;  and  more 
recently  competing  lines  have  been  formed  into  great  railway 
systems.  The  Boston  and  Maine,  in  connection  with  the  Maine 
Central,  covers  much  of  New  England  from  central  Massachu- 
setts northward,  connecting  with  Canadian  roads  and  with  the 
West.  The  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  has  acquired 
the  roads  of  soxithern  New  England,  as  well  as  the  connecting 
steamboat  lines  to  New  York;  while  the  Boston  and  Albany 


24 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Distribution  of  Population 
In  New  England. 

Circles  Indicate  Incorporated  Cities 

Squares  iudicate  Towns. 

The  size  of  the  circle  or  square  indicate  the 

population  according  to  United  States  Census  of 

1900  as  follows:  cnia    IOWMS 

1,000  to  3,000:      Inhabitants  ...... 

3,000  to  5,000:  ......  •;  ......  •         • 

5,000  to  10,000:  .....".  ......  •         • 

to  ••i5.°00:- 

25,000  to  50,000:. 


100,000  to  200,000: 


Over  500,000 


FIG.  15. 

Where  are  the  densely  populated  districts?  In  what  sections  ar 
there  no  large  towns?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  distribution  of  citi« 
and  large  towns  to  the  relief?  To  rivers?  To  railways?  To  th 
seacoast  ?  Try  to  discover  and  to  state  the  reasons  for  the  relations. 


SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT  25 

has  become  a  part  of  the  New  York  Central  System.  The  Cen- 
tral Vermont  extends  to  tidewater  at  New  London;  and  the 
Grand  Trunk  connects  Portland  with  Canada  and  the  West. 

This  network  of  steel  rails,  spun  closely  over  the  lower 
coastal  region  and  threading  the  interior  valleys,  has  strongly 
influenced  the  distribution  of  population  (Fig.  15).  The  inte- 
rior cities  of  Massachusetts  are  along  the  main  railway  lines, 
and  most  towns  not  reached  by  rail  have  lost  population  to 
the  gain  of  the  manufacturing  centres  (p.  81). 

City  and  Country.  —  The  Puritans  came  in  groups,  and 
settled  in  villages  about  their  churches,  the  better  to  resist 
Indian  attacks.  Later  the  tendency  to  settle  on  separate 
farmsteads  increased  ;  yet  villages  grew  at  crossroads  and 
near  saw  and  grist  mills,  because  these  places  became  cen- 
tres of  trade. 


FIG.  16. 

A  deserted  farmhouse,  New  Hampshire.     Mt.  Chocorna  at  the  right.    There 
are  now  many  summer  homes  in  this  region. 

While  villages  in  the  valleys  have  become  prosperous 
towns  and  cities,  those  on  the  hills  have  stagnated.  Many 
upland  farms  were  too  rocky  and  uneven  for  the  use  of 
farm  machinery,  and  were  so  remote  from  railways  and 
markets  that  they  have  proved  unprofitable  for  tillage. 
Often  the  children  left  the  dull  life  of  those  lonely  farms 
for  the  attractions  of  the  city,  and  when  their  parents  died, 


ENGLAND 


the  deserted  farms  were  allowed  to  grow  up  again  to  wood- 
hinds.  To-day,  in  some  districts,  one  may  trace  abandoned 
roads  along  the  old  stone  walls,  past  cellar  holes  and  chim- 
ney heaps  and  forgotten  family  graveyards.  In  the  en- 
croaching woodlands,  apple  trees  and  half-effaced  plough 
furrows  give  indication  of  past  thrift. 


FIG.  17. 
Country  road,  Westfield  valley,  western  Massachusetts. 

Although  many  farm  districts  are  still  losing  popula- 
tion, rural  conditions  are  brightening.  Some  farmers  are: 
improving  their  methods  of  work,  guided  by  the  agricul- 
tural colleges  and  experiment  stations.  .Their  sons  find 
opportunities  at  home  as  well  as  in  the  cities.  Better 
roads  and  the  many  lines  of  electric  cars  now  make,  acces- 
sible many  places  that  the  railways  have  failed  to  reach.^ 


SOCIAL   AND  INDUSTRIAL    DEVELOPMENT          27 

As  markets  and  social  advantages  are  thus  brought  nearer 
to  the  farmer,  he  is  made  more  prosperous  and  happy. 

In  pioneer  clays  the  early  Indian  trails  gave  way  to  bridle 
paths,  and  these  to  rough,  ungraded  cart  roads.  In  time, 
because  the  towns  could  not  afford  good  roads,  companies  were 
chartered  by  the  states  to  build  turnpike  roads,  with  toll  gates. 


FIG.  18. 
The  road  of  Fig.  17  when  changed  to  a  state  highway. 

These  extended  in  straight  lines  between  important  towns,  up 
hill  and  down,  and  were  long  used  by  coach  lines.  When  the 
turnpikes  proved  unprofitable  to  the  companies,  the  plan  was 
abandoned ;  and  the  ease  for  movement  by  rail  led  people  to 
overlook  the  necessity  for  good  roads.  Even  to-day  many 
country  roads  are  mended  by  scraping  waste  from  the  gutters 
into  the  road,  and  nearly  every  such  road  is  a  muddy  morass 
in  spring  (Fig.  17)  and  deep  in  dust  in  summer. 


28  NEW  ENGLAND 

At  present  some  of  the  state  governments  are  aiding  the 
towns  and  counties  to  build  better  roads.  Massachusetts  has 
a  system  of  state  highways  well  under  way  at  many  different 
points,  and  Connecticut  is  following  the  same  plan.  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont  have  taken  first  steps  toward  this 
end.  Such  state  roads  (Fig.  18)  are  built  on  gentle  grades,  of 
crushed  stone,  coarse  underneath  and  fine  above,  rolled  hard, 
and  sloping  to  the  sides  in  order  to  shed  water.  The  roads 
thus  made  are  mended  with  crushed  stone  as  soon  as  the  sur- 
face is  worn,  and  therefore  they  are  always  in  good  condition 
both  for  rapid  travel  and  for  heavy  loads. 

Not  only  has  the  country  been  brought  nearer  to  the 
city,  —  the  city  goes  yearly  to  the  country.  It  has  be- 
come the  custom  for  many-  to  escape  from  the  strain 
of  city  life  by  going  away,  for  at  least  a  fortnight,  to 
gain  new  health  by  country  fare  and  life,  and  to  enjoy 
the  beauty  of  upland  views  and  drives.  Coming  at  first 
as  boarders  in  farmhouses  and  summer  hotels,  many 
families  soon  desired  to  live  in  their  own  country  dwell- 
ings through  the  season  ;  so  deserted  farms  were  bought, 
and  old  buildings  repaired  or  new  ones  erected  (p.  94). 

These  estates  have  enlarged  the  field  for  labor 'in  the 
country.  The  hundreds  of  boarders  and  residents  who 
come  to  many  towns  supply  a  home  market  for  the  prod- 
uce of  even  those  farmers  who  do  not  take  boarders,  and 
good  prices  are  secured  for  eggs,  milk,  vegetables,  and 
fruit.  Through  this  contact  with  the  world  the  outlook 
of  the  country  people  is  broadening  and  the  value  of 
property  is  increasing. 

The  problems  of  city  life  and  government  are  especially 
difficult,  partly  because  several  races  have  been  brought 
together  in  the  cities.  In  the  middle  of  the  century, 
famine-stricken  Ireland  sent  scores  of  thousands  of  its 


SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   DEVELOPMENT 


29 


people  across  the  Atlantic.  These  found  work  in  the 
growing  cities  at  many  kinds  of  labor,  and  gradually 
replaced  native  workmen  in  the  mills.  After  the  Civil 
War,  when  much  help  was  needed  to  develop  the  rapidly 
growing  industries,  many  French  Canadians  crossed  the 
border  under  the  call  of  rising  wages.  Although  some 
returned  to  Canada  in  a  few  years,  more  have  remained 
as  citizens  of  our 
states.  Other 
people  have 
come  from  Great 
Britain,  and 
from  the  mari- 
time provinces 
of  Canada;  and 
of  late  G  e  r- 
mans,  Swedes, 
Italians,  Poles, 
and  others  have 
come  from  the 
continent  of 
Europe. 

The  poverty  of 
the  immigrants 
has  obliged  many 

to  crowd  into  cheap  tenements  in  special  districts.  Here 
bar-rooms  are  often  conspicuous  resorts,  vice  is  prevalent, 
and  disease  flourishes  because  of  the  lack  of  healthy  outdoor 
life  (Fig.  19).  The  conditions  tend  to  separate  the  races 
and  to  place  rich  and  poor  apart.  But  active  efforts  are 
now  being  made  by  churches  and  other  religious  and 
charitable  organizations  to  remedy  these  evils ;  for  in- 


FIG.  19. 

An  alley  of  the  North  End,  Boston,  —  a  tenement 
district.    Compare  with  Fig.  20. 


NEW  ENGLAND 


FIG.  20. 
Commonwealth  Avenue,  Boston.     Homes  of  the  wealthy. 

stance,  they  send  the  children  and  sick  of  the  poor  for  brief 
vacations  in  the  country.  A  few  cities  have  been  able  to 
close  the  saloons.  State  laws  have  reduced  the  hours  of 
labor,  and  some  cities  have  provided  small  parks  and  play- 
"grounds  in  the  tenement  districts.  In  recent  years  cheap 
and  rapid  transit  between  city  and  suburbs  has  led  to  the 
growth  of  the  outskirts  of  cities,  where  more  healthful 
conditions  prevail. 

Education. — The  school  system  of  New  England,  and 
the  free  public  libraries  found  in  most  towns,  have  been 
pronounced  means  whereby  the  people  have  developed 
the  culture  for  which  the  section  is  noted.  The  worth 
of  such  education  is  clearly  shown  in  the  fact  that  it  lias 
increased  the  earning  capacity  of  the  people  of  New 
England  over  that  of  states  where  many  children  have 
grown  up  in  ignorance. 

Many  of  the  Puritan  settlers  were  well  educated,  and  they 
earnestly  desired  the  education  of  their  children,  believing 


31 

this  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  the  state  and  church. 
Therefore  schools  were  started  early,  and  laws  were  soon 
passed  compelling  parents  to  see  that  their  children  learned 
to  read,  and  requiring  all  but  the  smallest  towns  to  maintain 
public  schools.  Harvard  College  was  founded  at  CAMBRIDGE 
when  Boston  was  but  six  years  old,  and  Yale  College  at  NEW 
HAVEX  two-thirds  of  a  century  later.  Both  colleges  have  now 
become  great  universities  (p.  70).  There  were  grammar  schools 
in  the  larger  towns,  where  the  boys  studied  Latin  grammar  iaj 
preparation  for  college,  and  other  schools  where  boys  learned 
the  "three  R's,"  -—reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  The 
youngest  children,  including  girls,  went  to  private  schools, 
kept  by  women,  —  called  dame  schools,  —  where  they  learned 
the  alphabet  and  studied  the  New  England  Primer. 

\Yhen  population  scattered  in  the  second  century  of  colo- 
nization (p.  19),  the  town  schoolmaster  had  to  conduct  a 
moving  school  from  district  to  district,  with  only  a  few  weeks 
or  months  at  any  one.  Every  district  had  to  erect  a  school- 
house,  and  later  it  was  given  its  share  of  the  town's  school  tax, 
with  power  to  hire  the  teacher.  During  the  troublous  times  of 
early  colonial  history  interest  in  education  had  waned,  and 
many  of  the  small  districts  were  too  poor  or  too  narrow  minded 
to  maintain  good  schools.  The  district  schools  were  as  a  rule 
poorly  taught,  in  miserable  schoolhouses,  with  the  rudest 
furniture  and  poor  text-books.  Most  of  the  grammar  schools 
were  closed,  but  many  academies  were  founded  by  the  gen- 
erous gifts  of  those  who  retained  the  desire  for  popular  educa- 
tion, and  the  states  gave  their  aid.  Scattered  over  the  counties, 
these  academies  afforded  the  opportunity  for  a  good  educa- 
tion to  the  boys  and  girls  who  could  meet  the  expense. 
Several  new  colleges  were  founded,  such  as  Brown,  Dartmouth, 
Bowdoin,  Williams,  Middlebury,  Amherst,  and  the  University 
of  Vermont,  one  of  the  earliest  state  colleges. 

Toward  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  through  the 
efforts  of  such  men  as  Horace  Mann  in  Massachusetts 


32  NEW  ENGLAND 

and  Henry  Barnard  in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island, 
interest  in  education  revived.  The  states  appointed 
boards  of  education-  which  gathered  information  and 
influenced  public  opinion,  and  in  time  town  school  com- 
mittees were  given  charge  of  the  district  schools.  State 
school  funds  were  formed  in  order  that  the  poorer  towns 
might  be  aided,  and  state  normal  schools  were  founded  for 
f.he  special  training  of  teachers. 

The  cities  began  to  employ  school  superintendents  to 
aid  the  committees,  and  to-day,  in  several  states,  groups 
of  towns  unite  to  secure  district  superintendents.  When 
the  large  city  schools  could  no  longer  gather  in  one  room, 
they  were  divided  into  graded  classes,  each  class  having  a 
teacher.  With  better  roads  and  electric  lines,  even  in 
some  of  the  towns  it  has  been  possible  to  close  the  dis- 
trict school  and  bring  all  the  children  daily  to  a  central 
building  of  graded  schools.  The  academies  are  largely 
displaced  by  free  public  high  schools,  and  far  more  pupils 
continue  their  studies  beyond  the  elementary  schools  than 
formerly.  Free  text-books  are  now  provided  in  New 
England,  and  the  laws  compelling  school  attendance  are  so 
strict  that  an  education  is  insured  to  all. 

Although  some  children  attend  private  schools,  the  public 
schools  help  to  bring  the  various  races,  the  rich  and  the  poor, 
together  in  equal  preparation  for  a  common  citizenship.  The 
schools  are  being  adapted,  also,  to  meet  new  problems.  For 
instance,  in  the  cities  there  are  evening  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  immigrants  and  those  who  leave  school  early  in  life  for 
work;  cooking,  sewing,  and  manual  training  are  taught,  in 
order  that  home  conditions  may  be  improved;  and  summer 
vacation  schools  are  held  in  city  tenement  districts,  where  the 
street  is  the  only  playground  (Fig.  19). 


FISHING  INDUSTRY  33 

INDUSTRIES 

Fishing.  Development.  —  Off  the  coast  from  Cape  Cod  to 
Newfoundland  there  are  rock-strewn  banks,  or  shoals,  where 
plant  and  animal  life  abounds.  Here  feed  the  cod  and  its 
allies,  the  haddock,  pollock,  and  hake,  and  a  huge  flatfish,  the 
halibut.  From  very  early  days  fishermen  from  France  have 
resorted  hither  to  catch  the  fish,  curing  them  on  shore  and 
returning  home  heavily  laden.  The  earliest  Puritan  settle- 
ments on  Cape  Ann  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  fishing,  and 
the  sale  of  fish  to  other  peoples  was  the  basis  of  colonial  com- 
merce and  prosperity.  On  the  fishing  boats  the  boys  of  coast 
towns  early  gained  the  skill  and  daring  which  took  them  as 
young  men  on  longer  voyages.  The  national  government 
formerly  granted  subsidies  to  fishing  vessels,  because  the  fish- 
eries trained  American  seamen  for  service  in  the  navy. 

Like  most  industries  the  fisheries  have  become  centred 
at  a  few  points.  Formerly  every  little  port  shared  the 
industry,  but  now  only  abandoned  fish  houses  and  old 
wharves  remain  in  many  places.  The  population  of  the 
Maine  coast  and  of  Cape  Cod  has  decreased  with  the 
transfer  of  their  village  fisheries  to  the  larger  ports. 
To-day  most  of  the  schooners  that  sail  to  the  fishing 
banks  are  from  GLOUCESTER  (Fig.  21),  and  its  fleets  num- 
ber about  four  hundred  vessels.  BOSTON,  PORTLAND,  and 
PROVINCETOWN  are  next  in  importance.  The  outfit  for  a 
voyage  can  be  more  easily  secured,  and  the  fish  better  han- 
dled, cured,  and  marketed  now  that  the  industry  is  centred. 
This  is  especially  true  as  to  marketing,  since  many  fish  are 
now  packed  in  ice  and  shipped  at  once  to  distant  cities  by 
rail.  As  a  market  for  fares  of  fresh  fish  Boston  excels 
Gloucester,  since  its  central  position  and  trade  connec- 
tions (p.  63)  favor  the  wholesale  trade. 


34 


ENGLAND 


Fia.  21. 
Gloucester  Harbor.    Fish  flakes  on  wharf  in  left  foreground. 

In  early  times  the  fisherman  was  also  a  farmer  in  sum- 
mer, and  engaged  in  lumbering,  shoemaking,  or  shipbuild- 
ing in  winter.  Naturally  the  methods  then  employed 
were  simple  and  primitive.  By  concentrating  the  best 
thought  of  one  enterprising  port  on  the  fishing  industry 
it  has  been  much  improved.  For  instance,  the  fishing 
boats  which  were  once  rude  craft,  are  now  swift,  safe, 
and  expensive  schooners  (Fig.  23).  Again,  the  skins 
and  refuse  from  the  salt  cod,  formerly  thrown  away,  are 
now  used  for  the  manufacture  of  glue  and  fertilizers. 

As  a  result  of  these  changes,  the  smaller  fishing  towns  of 
the  peninsulas  and  islands,  like  the  upland  villages,  find  their 
principal  occupation  in  serving  summer  visitors.  Many  such 
visitors  go  by  rail,  steamer,  and  yacht  to  almost  every  point 
on  the  New  England  coast,  escaping  from  the  heated  interior 
to  the  cool,  salty  air  of  the  sea  breezes.  Those  seeking  rest 
and  change  formerly  went  to  boarding  houses  and  hotels,  but 
now  there  are  also  many  groups  of  cottages  along  shore,  some 
inexpensive  and  simple,  others  the  palaces  of  the  wealthy. 
Near  the  former  are  fleets  of  sloops,  while  costly  steam  yachts 
are  common  at  Newport  and  Bar  Harbor  (pp.  80  and  113). 


FISHING  INDUSTRY  35 

Banks  Fisheries.  —  Cod  and  halibut,  formerly  caught  in 
abundance  near  shore,  must  now  be  sought  on  the  banks,  far 
from  land,  where  they  are  still  numerous.  An  attempt  is  being 
made,  however,  to  restore  the  former  abundance  of  cod  by  lib- 
erating young  fish  near  the  shore.  This  is  done  by  means  of 
fish  hatcheries-,  —  established  by  the  national  government,— 
in  which  the  roe  or  eggs  are  hatched  and  the  young  cared  for, 
for  a  time,  then  placed  in  the  sea. 


FIG.  22. 
-     Underruuning  a  trawl. 

Formerly  all  fishing  was  from  the  sides  of  vessels,  with  long 
hand  lines.  Later  dories  were  carried  on  a  schooner's  deck, 
and  one  or  two  fishermen  put  off  in  each  dory  to  fish.  Many 
fish  are  still  caught  in  these  ways,  but  most  bottom  fish  are 
now  secured  with  trawls  (Fig.  22).  A  trawl  consists  of  short 
anes,  with  baited  hooks,  attached  to  a  long  ground  line.  Each 
dory  is  manned  by  two  men,  and  has  several  tubs  with  coils  of 
baited  lines.  Putting  off  from  the  schooner  on  the  fishing 
grounds,  one  end  of  the  ground  Hne  is  anchored,  and  marked 
by  a  buoy ;  and  the  fishing  gear  is  cast  overboard  by  one  man 
while  the  other  rows  the  dory  away  from  the  vessel. 

Several  trawl  lines  are  united  to  make  a  single  one  a  mile 
op  two  in  length,  the  other  end"  being  also  anchored  and  .marked 


36  NEW  ENGLAND 

by  a  buoy.  The  lines  remain  out  for  a  few  hours,  or  through 
the  night,  and  then  the  fishermen  haul  them  into  the  dories 
and  secure  the  fish.  Where  the  water  is  not  too  deep,  trawls 
for  cod  may  be  under-run ;  that  is,  the  trawl  is  passed  over  the 
boat,  the  cod  removed,  and  the  hooks  rebaited  with  pieces  of 
fish.  By  this  method  most  of  the  trawl  is  always  at  the  bottom 
ready  to  catch  fish. 

On  board  the  schooner  the  fish  are  cleaned  and  packed  in 
ice,  if  to  be  sold  fresh ;  if  not,  they  are  split,  salted,  and  piled 
beneath  the  deck  in  the  hold.  The  livers  are  saved  for  their 
oil,  and  the  air  bladders,  which  contain  much  gelatine,  are 
often  cut  out  to  be  sold  to  manufacturers  of  isinglass. 

At  the  home  port  the  fish  are  packed  in  hogsheads  of  strong 
brine.  After  being  thoroughly  soaked  here  they  are  spread  on 
flakes  —  light  platforms  of  lattice  work  —  to  be  dried  (Fig.  21). 
By  this  salt-drying  process  two-thirds  of  the  water  is  removed 
from  the  fish  flesh  and  its  preservation  is  insured.  Many  of 
the  dried  cod  are  sent  away  whole,  but  the  business  of  prepar- 
ing boneless  cod  has  become  a  very  important  one  at  the  fish- 
ing ports,  especially  at  Gloucester.  For  this  purpose  the  skin 
and  bones  are  removed  from  the  fish  and  the  flesh  is  then  cut 
into  short  pieces  or  torn  into  fine  shreds  by  machinery.  Boxes 
of  boneless  cod  may  be  seen  at  any  grocery. 

Most  halibut  are  sold  fresh,  but  some  are  salted  on  board 
the  schooners.  The  salted  halibut  is  made  into  smoked  hali- 
but by  being  hung  for  several  days  in  smoke  houses  exposed 
to  the  smoke  from  fires  of  oak  chips.  Haddock  are  also  smoked 
and  sold  under  the  Scotch  name  of  finnan  haddie. 

Although  the  food  on  fishing  schooners  is  abundant,  varied, 
and  well  cooked,  and  the  home  life  of  American  fishermen 
shares  the  usual  comforts,  a  fisherman's  life  at  sea  is  hard  and 
dangerous.  There  he  must  rise  early  and  work  late  and  omit 
the  Sunday  rest.  The  light  dories  must  often  be  forced  against 
the  wind  when  tending  trawls,  and  must  be  very  carefully 
managed  in  high  seas.  The  hooks  must  be  baited  with 
bare  hands  even  in  icy  weather.  On  the  shoal  water  of  the 
banks  the  waves  run  high  during  fall  and  winter  storms, 


FISHING   INDUSTRY 


37 


and  in  some  years  many  schooners  are  lost.  Not  uncommonly 
a  schooner  returns  with  flag  at  half  mast  for  some  of  the  crew 
swept  overboard,  or  lost  while  out  in  the  dories.  While  tend- 
ing trawls  a  dory  may  be  overwhelmed  by  a  sudden  squall,  or 
during  a  fog  the  men  may  lose  their  bearings  and  drift  away 
from  the  schooner  and  the 
sound  of  its  horn. 

The  Gloucester  fisher- 
men do  not  work  for 
wages,  but  the  profits 
of  a  voyage  are  divided 
among  the  owners,  cap- 
tain, and  crew,  a  small 
portion  being  set  aside  for 
the  fund  that  provides  for 
the  widows  and  orphans 
of  fishermen  of  that  city. 

Mackerel  Fishing. — 
Minute  animals  in  the  sur- 
face waters  of  the  ocean 
serve  as  food  for  many  fish,  such  as  mackerel,  herring,  and 
menhaden.  These  in  turn  are  pursued  by  larger  fish,  among 
which  the  swordfish  and  bluefish  are  most  valuable  for  market. 
The  mackerel  disappear  in  winter,  but  come  shoreward  as  the 
surface  waters  get  warmer.  Since  many  thousands  move 
together  in  schools,  a  lookout  on  the  mackerel  schooners  easily 
sees  them  as  they  swim  along  near  the  surface. 

When  a  good  school  is  sighted,  the  crew  leap  into  the  great 
seine  boats,  leaving  the  schooner  to  the  cook,  and  pull  away. 
The  captain  notes  the  direction  and  speed  of  the  school,  and  so 
plans  that  the  net  is  cast  in  a  great  bend  in  front  of  the  mack- 
erel, and  is  closed  behind  them  as  they  enter.  The  upper  side 
of  the  net  is  supported  by  cork  floats,  the  other  stretched 
downward  by  lead  weights.  Since  it  is  at  first  open  below,  the 
school  may  sink  and  escape ;  but  all  hands  straining  at  each 
end  of  a  rope  passed  through  pulleys  along  the  lower  edge  of 
the  net,  quickly  pull  it  together  into  a  great  pocket  and  the 


FIG.  23. 
A  fishing  schooner. 


maekerel  are  entrapped.  The  schooner  is  then  brought  along- 
side, ami  the  fish  are  hauled  on  board  by  a  dip  net.  The 
greater  numlx'r  of  mackerel  are  salted  in  brine,  although 
many  are  carried  to  port  as  fresh  mackerel. 

There  are  other  fisheries  of  local  importance,  which  are  con- 
sidered under  the  separate  states  (pp.  73,  80,  86,  and  113). 


FIG.  24. 
The  forested  upland  of  Maine.     Mt.  Katahdin. 

Lumbering.  Forest  Products.  —  The  forests,  as  well  as 
the  fisheries,  were  of  value  to  the  settlers  in  many  ways ; 
for  instance,  for  lumber,  wood  ashes,  and  timber  for  ships. 
Many  lofty  veteran  pines,  clear,  straight,  and  evenly  taper- 
ing, were  marked  by  the  king's  broad  arrow  and  reserved 
for  masts  for  the  English  navy.  There  were  stirring 


LUMBERING  INDUSTRY  39 

times  when  long  teams  of  oxen  hauled  one,  by  dint  of 
much  shouting  by  many  drivers,  down  to  a  seaport. 

Much  of  the  land  is  now  cleared,  and  over  the  southern 
uplands  only  isolated  tracts  of  woodland  occur,  which  are 
of  value  mainly  in  supplying  firewood.  But  in  the  north 
there  is  still  a  vast  forest  stretching  eastward  from  the 
White  Mountains  (Fig.  50)  and  covering  half  of  Maine. 
In  this  forest  both  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  might  be 
placed  and  lost  from  the  world  and  each  other. 

Many  kinds  of  valuable  trees  abound.  There  are  pop- 
lar, birch,  maple,  beech,  and  other  deciduous  trees,  and 
such  evergreens  as  spruce,  hemlock,  and  pine,  with  cedar 
in  the  swampy  lands.  Spruce  is  abundant  over  an  upland 
area  in  Maine  that  is  larger  than  all  Massachusetts,  and 
may  long  remain  a  source  of  great  revenue  if,  in  cutting, 
care  is  used  to  avoid  waste  and  to  protect  young  growth. 
The  yearly  cut  of  spruce  yields  a  value  of  eighteen 
million  dollars'  worth  of  paper  and  six  million  dollars' 
worth  of  lumber. 

Logging.  —  Before  the  Civil  War,  logging  commenced  only 
after  the  first  snowfall,  when  the  supplies  could  be  drawn  in 
on  sleds  across  the  frozen  swamps.  In  those  days  also  the 
pine  logs  were  dragged  to  the  river  landings  by  slow  ox  teams. 
To-day  the  cutting  commences  in  late  summer,  that  the  logs 
may  be  ready  to  be  moved  when  the  snow  comes.  Roadways 
are  cleared,  and  the  logs  are  hauled  by  horses  to  great  piles  in 
the  "  yards."  When  the  chopping  is  over,  in  January,  the  logs 
are  taken  onto  the  ice  of  the  lakes,  or  to  the  landings,  whence 
they  are  rolled  into  the  river  when  the  ice  breaks  up.  Food 
supplies  for  the  next  season  are  then  brought  in. 

The  beans  and  salt  pork  baked  in  the  ground,  and  bread 
baked  before  an  open  fire,  which  were  the  food  for  the  lumber- 
men in  past  days,  are  now  supplemented  by  a  more  varied  fare 


40  .  NRW  ENGLAND 

cooked  on  ranges.  The  great  log  camps,  however,  with  their 
rough  bunks  of  boughs,  still  house  the  "  gang  "  of  perhaps  fifty 
men.  The  life  is  hard  and  wearing,  but  the  evenings  are  often 
made  gay  by  songs  and  games. 

Driving.  —  Driving,  or  floating  the  logs  down  stream  on  the 
spring  floods,  is  less  dangerous  than  formerly,  being  in  charge 
of  special  companies  on  the  large  rivers.  They  have  cleared 
away  many  of  the  boulders  and  sandbars  against  which  the 
logs  were  often  piled  in  jams,  and  have  built  dams  to  hold  the 
water  back  for  use  when  necessary  to  float  the  logs.  A  driv- 
ing gang  of  a  hundred  men  accompanies  the  logs,  which  enter 
the  main  stream  from  many  lakes  and  tributaries.  When 
necessary,  the  men  leap  from  one  rolling  log  to  another,  free- 
ing them  from  jams  in  the  quick  water  of  rapids  and  pushing 
them  onward  in  dead  water  where  the  current  is  slow.  At 
last  the  logs  are  caught  by  the  "  booms,"  which  are  lines  of 
logs  fastened  together  and  stretched  across  the  rivers  above 
the  mills.  Every  log  is  marked  so  that  those  of  the  different 
owners  may  be  separated.  The  several  lots  are  distributed  to 
the  mills  of  different  towns  and  cities  below. 

Lumber. — The  largest  sawmills  are  located  at  falls  near 
tidewater.  Why  ?  But  some  which  are  placed  beside 
the  lumber  wharves,  now  use  steam,  produced  by  burning 
sawdust.  Many  people  are  employed  in  manufacturing 
and  shipping  lumber,  and  the  industry  has  occasioned  the 
growth  of  towns  and  cities  along  the  rivers  of  Maine  ;  such 
for  instance,  as  BANGOR,  the  most  important  lumber  mar- 
ket in  the  Eastern  States.  While  formerly  the  product 
was  mainly  boards,  timber,  clapboards,  and  shingles,  to-day 
a  great  variety  of  products  is  manufactured,  such  as  sashes, 
doors,  blinds,  boxes,  finish,  mouldings,  flooring,  and  hard- 
wood articles  of  many  kinds  (pp.  98,  107,  and  108). 

The  machinery  for  handling  the  logs  is  greatly  improved, 
and  many  devices  now  replace  hand  labor.  The  logs  pass 


LUMBERING  INDUSTRY  41 

from  the  river  to  the  swift  carriages  of  the  handsaws,  which 
give  a  continuous  cut  and  rapidly  change  logs  to  lumber. 
The  boards  pass  to  edgers  and  planers,  then  over  whirling 
rolls  to  their  places  in  the  yards.  The  slabs  are  cut  into 
laths,  pickets,  etc.,  and  what  remains  is  sold  for  kindling  or 
made  into  wood  pulp. 

Much  lumber  is  shipped  in  coasting  schooners  to  Bos- 
ton, New  York,  and  other  ports  ;  but  a  part  of  the  product 
goes  by  rail  from  inland  mills,  and  a  smaller  portion  Is 
sent  to  foreign  ports  in  steamers. 

Wood  Pulp  and  Paper.  —  With  the  closing  decades  of  the 
last  century  there  grew  a  demand  for  more  and  cheaper 
paper  than  rags  alone  could  provide,  and  a  new  use  was 
found  for  forest  trees.  Paper  was  made  from  poplar 
wood,  and  then  spruce  proved  better  still.  On  the  one 
hand,  this  increases  the  demand  on  the  forests,  and  takes 
even  the  small  trees ;  on  the  other  hand,  crooked  and 
seamy  logs,  which  the  lumbermen  formerly  left  as  waste, 
may  be  used  for  paper.  The  paper  companies  have 
bought  large  areas,  where,  with  wise  and  careful  cutting, 
the  spruce  may  grow  as  fast  as  used. 

In  making  wood  pulp,  small  logs  are  cut  into  short  lengths 
and  the  bark  is  removed  by  a  machine.  Then  they  are  placed 
within  the  iron  enclosure  of  a  grinder  and  pressed  hard  against 
a  revolving  sandstone  wheel.  From  this  the  ground-up  pulp 
is  carried  off  in  water,  and  strained  through  sieves  placed  in 
large  tanks.  Thence  the  very  thin  pulp  is  pumped  to  the 
paper  machines.  In  these  the  pulp  is  taken  up  in  a  thin  and 
even  layer  on  a  broad  belt  of  cloth  which  passes  into  a"nd  then 
out  of  the  pulpy  water.  The  water  drains  away  slowly,  and 
as  the  cloth  passes  between  two  large  rolls  the  sheet  of  fibre 
adheres  to  the  upper  roll.  As  soon  as  a  thick  enough  layer 
has  collected,  it  is  cut,  stripped  from  the  roll,  and  folded  like 
so  much  damp  blotting  paper. 


|-J  NK\\'  ENGL.\\l> 


FIG.  25. 
A  grinding  room  in  the  great  paper  mill,  Millinockett,  Maine. 

For  making  stronger  and  whiter  paper,  chemical  fibre  is 
added  to  the  wood  pulp.  For  making  this  fibre  the  wood  is 
cut  into  very  small  chips  and  cooked  for  several  hours  in  hot, 
acid  liquor  under  steam  pressure,  until  the  fibre  is  fully  sepa- 
rated and  the  pitch  dissolved.  Having  been  drained  and 
washed,  this  fibre  is  also  passed  through  a  paper  machine,  so 
that  it  is  easily  handled  and  shipped. 

Newspaper  stock  is  usually  made  from  wood  pulp.  For 
book  and  magazine  paper  much  chemical  fibre  is  added  to  the 
wood  pulp,  the  two  being  well  mixed  in  water  and  again 
passed  through  a  paper  machine  of  many  rolls. 

The  paper  industry  is  an  important  one  in  northern 
New  England.  Sawmills  run  only  about  half  the  year, 
while  the  pulp  and  paper  mills  employ  more  workmen 
and  keep  them  ever  busy.  The  mills  are  all  on  the 
large  rivers,  where  the  logs  are  floated  down  to  them,  and 
where  cheap  power  to  run  the  grinders  is  available  at  the 
falls.  Many  cities  and  towns  on  the  Penobscot,  Kennebec, 
and  Androscoggin  in  Maine  have  large  pulp  and  paper  mills 
(pp.  108  and  112).  By  the  development  of  this  indus- 
try, BERLIN,  on  the  falls  of  the  Androscoggin  in  New 
Hampshire,  became  a  city  in  a  few  years. 


AGRICULTURE  43 

Agriculture.  Development.  —  Agriculture  was  for  two 
centuries  the  leading  occupation  of  New  England,  for  the 
other  industries  were  carried  on  only  at  odd  times  by  those 
who  were  engaged  in  farming  during  much  of  the  year. 
This  same  condition  exists  to-day  in  a  number  of  places. 
For  example,  lime  casks  are  made  by  farmers  who  live  in 
towns  near  ROCKLAND,  Maine,  where  much  lime  is  pro- 
duced (p.  115)  ;  and  salmon"  are  caught  in  weirs  by 
those  whose  farms  border  the  lower  Penobscot.  Neverthe- 
less, although  the  soil  of  most  of  the  newly  cleared  land 
was  so  rich  with  leaf  mould  as  to  give  the  pioneers  good 
grain  crops,  the  uplands  are  too  rocky  and  uneven  to  be 
tilled  easily  with  machines.  'Therefore  New  England  now 
depends  upon  the  Central  States  for  food  staples. 

With  the  growth  of  cities  and  railways  New  England 
farms  have  greatly  changed.  Formerly  their  products 
were  so  varied  as  to  meet  most  of  the  needs  of  their 
owners,  and  some  farmers  still  keep  a  half  dozen  kinds  of 
farm  animals  and  cultivate  small  areas  of  many  orchard, 
field,  and  garden  crops.  In  common  with  the  tendency  in 
all  industries,  however,  a  progressive  farmer  to-day  gives 
his  main  attention  to  some  one  class  of  products.  For 
example,  there  are  stock  farms  which  rear  thoroughbred 
cattle  or  horses,  and  poultry  farms  that  produce  eggs  and 
chickens  for  market.  In  Aroostook  County,  Maine,  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  potatoes  are  planted  (p.  110).  In  early 
fall  many  people  on  Cape  Cod  are  busy  picking  cranber- 
ries, cultivated  in  the  bogs  that  have  formed  in  depres- 
sions of  the  glacial  sands.  On  the  terraces  of  the 
Connecticut  valley  there  are  fields  of  tobacco  (p.  83). 
Near  the  cities  there  are  many  hothouses  for  raising  flow- 
ers, to  meet  the  increasing  demands  of  wealth  and  culture. 


44 


NEW  ENGLAND 


The  ready  market  in  the  cities  for  milk,  fresh  vege- 
tables, and  fruit  has  given  the  dairy  and  market-garden 
industries  the  leading  place  in  New  England  farming. 
Like  all  well-watered,  hilly  districts,  our  uplands  are  grass 
grown  and  fitted  for  dairy  farms.  Market  gardening 
does  not  require  extensive  areas,  and  brings  returns  so 
large  as  to  warrant  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  even 
though  it  be  light  and  loose. 


FIG.  26. 
A  poultry  farm. 

Dairying.  —  In  early  days  the  cows  were  milked  only 
when  out  at  pasture,  and  they  simply  lived  through  the 
winter  with  but  scanty  food.  They  were  of  no  certain 
breed,  and  were  as  highly  valued  for  meat  as  for  milk. 
Only  half  a  century  ago  drovers  travelled  through  New 
England  buying  cows  and  oxen,  and  drove  them  in  herds 
to  Boston,  there  to  be  killed  for  market. 


AGRICULTURE 


45 


To-day  the  dairy  cow  (Fig.  27)  is  a  milk  machine,  as 
highly  developed  a  product  of  human  skill  as  a  loom. 
Cows  have  been  imported  from  parts  of  Europe,  where 
they  have  long  been  carefully  bred,  and  the  breeding  of 
stock  has  been 
continued  here 
so  as  to  secure 
animals  that 
should  turn  their 
food  into  a  large 
yield  of  rich 
milk,  instead  of 
placing  it  in  flesh 
and  fat  upon 
their  bodies  (p. 
100).  The  herds 
of  Jerseys,  Hoi- 
steins,  and  other 
breeds  supply  milk  throughout  the  year,  for  in  winter  they 
are  housed  in  good  barns  and  provided  with  varied  and 
nourishing  foods. 

Largely  because  of  the  dairy  business  hay  is  far  the  most 
important  crop  raised  on  New  England  farms.  The  land  is 
manured  yearly,  and  every  few  years  it  is  ploughed  and  sown 
with  grass  seed.  Besides  well-cured  hay,  —  and  more  concen- 
trated foods  from  corn,  oats,  and  cotton  seed,  —  green  food  or 
ensilage  is  fed.  For  this  the  green  corn  stalks  and  ears  are 
cut  up  into  bits  which  are  packed  closely  within  the  walls  of 
a  silo  away  from  the  air.  Although  some  fermentation  takes 
place,  the  ensilage  retains  the  food  value  of  the  corn  and  is 
liked  by  the  cows. 

Many  farmers  near  the  large  towns  and  cities  make  a 
business  of  selling  milk.  In  the  evening  the  milk  from 


FIG.  27. 
Stoke  Pogis  Regina,  — a  valuable  Vermont  Jersey  cow. 


4t;  y/:>r  ENGLAND 

several  fiinns  is  collected,  poured  into  a  large  mixer,  and 
ll irn  put  into  cans  and  glass  bottles.  Early  the  following 
morning  the  milk  is  delivered  to  the  customers  in  the  city. 

Boston  requires  so  much  milk  that  its  supply  must  be  brought 
from  a  distance  by  train.  Four  large  firms,  which  contract 
with  the  farmers  for  milk,  run  trains  from  southern  New  Hamp- 
shire ami  central  Massachusetts.  Milk  delivered  in  the  morn- 
ing at  the  railway  station  reaches  the  contractors  at  noon,  and  is 
sold  from  their  depots  to  the  milkmen,  who  deliver  it  the  next 
day.  This  milk,  although  a  day  or  more  old  when  delivered, 
has  been  kept  sweet  on  ice.  Inspectors  acting  under  a  state  law 
see  that  it  is  not  weak  or  adulterated.  When  too  much  milk 
is  received,  the  contractors  make  the  surplus  into  butter. 
Cream  is  also  sold,  and  much  of  this  comes  from  creameries 
in  Maine.  A  milk  train  from  Pittsfield  takes  milk  from  many 
towns  to  New  York  City  daily. 

At  a  distance  from  populous  districts,  most  of  the  milk 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  which 
may  be  transported  long  distances  with  profit.  Cream- 
eries and  cheese  factories  are  more  abundant  in  Vermont 
(p.  102)  than  elsewhere  in  New  England. 

Market.  Gardens.  — When  truck  farmers  in  the  South- 
ern States  commenced  to  send  their  products  north,  the 
raising  of  vegetables  near  the  northern  cities  developed 
into  a  special  industry  to  meet  this  competition.  The 
work  of  the  market  gardener  continues  through  all 
seasons.  The  large  growers  have  glass  houses,  heated  by 
steam  or  hot  water,  in  which  cucumbers,  lettuce,  and 
radishes  are  raised  in  the  winter,  and  tomatoes  in  the 
spring.  The  hothouses  near  Boston  are  very  extensive 
(p.  69),  and  their  produce  finds  sale  even  in  New  York. 

After  the  last  fall  crops  have  been  gathered,  long  trenches 
are  dug  on  some  sunny  slope  and  filled  with  deep  beds  of  fresh 


AGRICULTURE  47 

manure  covered  with  several  inches  of  loatn.  These  are  pro- 
tected from  north  winds  by  a  high  board  fence;  while  sashes 
of  glass,  thick  mats,  and  board  shutters,  resting  one  above  the 
other,  protect  the  beds  from  the  cold  air.  The  decomposition 
of  the  manure  produces  heat,  and  the  seeds  sown  in  the  loam 
germinate.  On  sunny  days  the  mats  and  shutters  are  taken 
from  the  glass.  Radishes,  dandelions,  and  cucumbers  are 
raised  in  hotbeds  in  spring,  and  many  kinds  of  plants  are 
started  in  them  to  be  later  transplanted. 

Several  crops  a  year  are  often  raised  from  a  field.  The 
land  is  ploughed,  manured,  ploughed  again,  harrowed, 
and  raked  before  each  crop,  thus  giving  little  chance  for 
weeds.  Planting,  cultivating,  weeding,  watering,  and  gath- 
ering the  crops  give  employment  to  many  hands  through- 
out the  summer.  The  products  are  taken  to  the  cities  and, 
like  milk,  are  sold  to  large  firms  or  directly  to  customers. 

Crops  that  require  little  skill  are  commonly  grown  by  the 
farmers  throughout  New  England.  Potatoes  and  cabbages  are 
illustrations.  In  Maine  much  sweet  corn  is  raised  for  the 
canning  factories  scattered  through  the  towns  (p.  112).  In 
addition  to  the  common  vegetables,  the  market  gardens  raise 
celery,  green  peas,  cauliflower,  and  other  products  which  re- 
quire trained  care  while  growing,  or  which  must  be  marketed 
at  once  when  mature.  Celery,  onions,  and  such  root  crops  as 
turnips  and  parsnips  are  stored  in  cemented  cellars  for  sale  in 
winter  after  the  surplus  from  the  farms  has  been  marketed 
and  the  prices  are  higher.  The  market  gardeners  also  raise 
strawberries,  raspberries,  blackberries,  and  other  small  fruits. 
Some  places  have  large  orchards  of  peaches  and  pears,  and 
apples  are  extensively  grown.  Maine  exports  many  apples. 

Because  the  very  best  fruit  and  vegetables  secure  a 
ready  market  at  high  prices  there  are  special  seed  farms. 
The  owners  grow  seed  carefully  for  sale,  and  strive  to 


48  NEW  ENGLAND 

develop  varieties  that  shall  mature  early  or  late,  and 
yield  fairer,  larger,  and  better  keeping  products  (p.  83). 

Quarrying.  —  New  England  is  an  old,  deeply  worn  moun- 
tain land,  whose  weathered  surface  rock  has  been  rasped 
away  by  the  glacier  that  once  covered  it.  The  many 
exposed  ledges  of  hard  rock  hinder  farming,  but  supply 
valuable  building  and  road-making  material.  The  growth 
of  cities  has  increased  the  demand  for  stone,  and  quarry- 
ing has  become  an  important  industry.  Some  kinds  of 
stone  deserve  special  mention.  Sandstones  are  quarried 
in  the  Connecticut  lowland.  The  marble  quarries  about 
RUTLAND,  Vermont,  are  the  most  important  in  the  coun- 
try (p.  104).  An  abundance  of  lime  of  the  best  quality 
is  burned  in  and  near  ROCKLAND,  Maine  (p.  114). 
Granite,  however,  is  quarried  in  each  state  extensively. 

Q-ranite. — Granite  forms  the  main  mass  of  many  New 
England  mountains,  because  of  its  strength,  hardness, 
and  resistance  to  weathering.  The  same  qualities  make 
it  valuable  both  for  building  stone  and  street-paving 
blocks.  The  varying  colors  of  different  granites  and  the 
enduring  beauty  of  their  polished  surfaces  have  led  to  the 
use  of  the  stone  in  the  interior  of  buildings  and  for 
monuments  in  cemeteries,  although  it  is  not  so  easily  and 
cheaply  worked  as  marble  or  slate  (p.  108). 

Granite  is  so  hard  that  it  must  be  fashioned  for  use  largely 
by  means  of  the  chisel  and  hammer.  The  granite  blocks  are 
separated  by  blasting  or  by  wedges  driven  into  holes  made  by 
drills.  These  great  blocks  are  further  divided  into  desired 
sizes  in  the  latter  way  and  are  placed  by  derricks  on  platform 
cars  for  removal.  The  granite  slabs  are  split  and  trimmed  to 
the  size  for  paving  blocks  by  the  skilful  use  of  hammers ; 
but  for  shaping  blocks  for  buildings  and  monuments  the  use 


QUARRYING  INDUSTRY  49 

of  chisel  and  hammer  is  now  supplemented  by  a  power  drill. 
This  is  held  and  directed  by  the  hand,  and  strikes  swift  blows 
against  the  stone  by  the  force  of  compressed  air. 

The  drowning  of  the  coast  has  brought  granite  ledges 
next  to  the  water  in  many  places,  as  on  the  Maine  coast 
(p.  114)  and  at  Cape  Ann.  From  such  places  paving 
blocks  and  building  stone  may  be  cheaply  conveyed  in 
vessels  to  the  great  coast  cities.  Granite  is  also  quarried 
at  many  inland  points,  as  near  CONCORD,  New  Hamp- 
shire (p.  98).  The  granites  of  QUINCY,  Massachusetts, 
and  WESTERLY,  Rhode  Island,  have  long  been  quarried. 
Recently  the  quarries  about  BARRE,  Vermont,  have  been 
developed  rapidly,  until  noW  the  granite  business  is  of 
immense  importance  there  (p.  105). 

Textile  Manufactures.  Development.  — Fish  and  lumber 
were  the  basis  for  a  commerce  that  enriched  the  coast 
towns  of  New  England  and  supplied  them  with  foreign 
manufactures ;  but  agriculture  yielded  no  staple  product 
so  freely  that  much  of  it  coulct  be  sold  abroad.  The  cold 
winters  required  warm  clothing,  however,  and  gave  leisure 
for  its  manufacture ;  so  the  farmers  raised  flax  and  kept 
flocks  of  sheep  to  provide  materials  for  their  "linsey- 
woolsey  "  suits.  The  sheep  were  washed  and  their  fleeces 
sheared  by  the  men,  while  the  women  prepared  the  tangled 
wool  for  spinning  by  combing  it  with  hand  cards,  which 
were  rude  brushes  with  wire  teeth. 

Perhaps  you  have  seen  an  old  spinning-wheel  by  whose 
swiftly  turning  spindle  much  fibre  has  been  twisted  into  yarn, 
or  spun,  as  the  wool  was  slowly  drawn  out  to  the  right  size 
between  thumb  and  finger.  During  the  long  winter  evenings 
the  homespun  cloth  was  woven  on  rude  hand  looms.  This 
was  then  "  fulled,"  that  is,  soaped  and  worked  with  the  hands 


50 


NEW  ENGLAND 


until  tlio  fibres  were  loosened  and  matted  together,  making 
the  cloth  thick  and  warm. 

There  was  never  cloth  enough  made  in  the  colonies  to  supply 
their  needs,  although  laws  were  enacted  to  encourage  its  manu- 
facture. Sheep  were  free  from  taxation ;  bounties  were  given 
for  wolves  killed;  and  the  dog  tax  that  we  still  pay  was 
imposed  then,  because  dogs  often  killed  sheep.  The  colonies 
required  that  children  should  be  taught  to  spin,  and  that'  each 
family  should  spin  its  yearly  share  of  yarn. 


FIG.  28. 
A  spinning  room  in  a  textile  factory. 

In  the  second  century  of  colonial  times,  mills  where  the 
farmers  could  have  their  wool  carded  and  their  cloth  fulled 
became  common.  A  few  still  remain  in  remote  districts  of 
northern  New  England.  There  were  skilled  weavers  in  some 
villages,  who  wove  cloth  to  order  from  yarn  supplied  them, 
while  others  went  from  house  to  house  plying  their  trade. 

Although  the  Revolution  removed  the  restrictions  imposed 
by  England  on  the  manufacture  of  cloth  for  sale,  the  industry 
developed  very  slowly.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  many  inventions  were  made  in  England  whereby  cotton 
or  wool  could  be  cheaply  and  rapidly  spun  on  machines  bear- 
ing many  spindles  and  driven  by  water  power.  Soon  power 
looms  replaced  hand  looms.  As  English  law  strictly  forbade 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURES 


51 


the  exportation  of  textile  machinery,  or  any  drawings  or 
descriptions  of  the  machines,  the  small  American  factories 
that  were  started  could  not  make  cloth  as  cheaply  as  it  was 
imported.  However,  eager  to  profit  by  the  opportunity,  sev- 
eral skilful  English  mechanics  came  to  this  country  near  the 
opening  of  the  last  century  and  built  spinning  and  weav- 
ing machines  like  those  familiar  to  them.  The  War  of  1812 
followed,  and  prevented  the  importation  of  cloth,  and  this 
encouraged  many  factories  to  start.  Later  the  tariff  protected 


FIG.  29. 
Manville,  a  factory  village  of  Rhode  Island.    What  does  the  picture  show  ? 

American  factories  from  English  competition.  Since  then, 
American  invention  has  so  improved  textile  machinery  that 
in  some  lines  it  is  superior  to  foreign  patterns,  and  American 
cloths  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Cotton  Manufacturing.  —  Cotton  manufacturing  was 
never  a  household  industry  in  New  England,  since  little 
cotton  was  produced  in  America  before  the  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin  in  1793.  Its  successful  manufacture  here 
dates  from  the  coming  of  Samuel  Slater  from  England  in 
1700.  With  the  aid  of  PAWTUCKET  capitalists  he  made 
machinery  and  started  successful  mills  in  Rhode  Island. 


5*2 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Young  men  who  had  been  trained  with  him  established 
mills  of  their  own  at  the  many  falls  of  the  Blackstone, 
l';i\vtuxet,  and  Quinebaug  rivers  (pp.  79  and  90).  They 
started  with  small  mills,  and  gave  close  attention  to  the 
work,  so  that  fine  grades  of  yarn  were  produced  and  some 
mills  made  a  specialty  of  certain  kinds  of  cloth.  These 
characteristics  are  still  true  of  that  section  (Fig.  29). 

When  the  War  of  1812  checked  commerce,  Boston  mer- 
chants invested  their  money  in  manufacturing.  A  mill  at 
WALTHAM  proved  successful,  and  later,  Boston  capital 
built  dams  and  mills  at  LOWELL,  MANCHESTER,  LAW- 
RENCE, NASHUA,  BIDDEFORD,  and  LEWISTON.  To  secure 

operatives  for  the  large 
mills  erected,  the  corpo- 
rations built  boarding 
houses  and  placed  them 
in  charge  of  worthy 
people  so  that  parents 
in  country  towns  might 
safely  allow  their  daugh- 
ters to  enter  the  mills. 
Excellent  hands  were 
thus  obtained,  and  al- 
though the  hours  of 
work  were  long,  the 
operatives  were  treated 
considerately  and  well 
paid.  Since  then  condi- 
tions have  changed. 
Immigrants  have  largely 
replaced  native  workmen,  and  both  parents  and  their  older 
children  are  now  employed  in  the  mills  (p.  29).  State 


FIG.  30. 

Relative  importance  of  cities  and  water- 
powers  in  cotton  manufacturing. 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURES  53 

laws  have  shortened  the  hours  of  labor  and  have  protected 
the  interests  of  the  employees  in  other  ways. 

FALL  RIVER,  the  "Cotton  City"  of  America,  is  an 
illustration  of  cities  where  local  capital  has  developed  the 
industry.  The  water  from  ponds  on  the  upland  rim  of 
the  Narragansett  Basin  here  descends  in  falls  to  tide  level, 
and  cotton  mills  were  built  early  in  the  last  century.  The 
moist  climate,  due  to  the  neighboring  ocean,  favored  cot- 
ton spinning.  The  money  gained  in  the  first  mills  was 
invested  in  others  driven  by  steam  power,  and  Fall  River 
became  the  leading  cotton-manufacturing  city  of  the 
country.  The  corporations  erected  tenements  rather  than 
boarding  houses,  and  the  operatives  have  from  the  first 
been  a  somewhat  permanent  class.  Cotton  manufacture 
in  NEW  BEDFORD  and  TAUNTON  has  had  a  similar  history. 
ADAMS  and  NORTH  ADAMS  form  an  inland  centre  of  inde- 
pendent development  where  cotton  mills  have  multiplied. 

Plain  sheetings  and  shirtings  have  always  been  the  most 
common  product  of  the  mills,  although  nearly  as  much  print 
cloth  is  woven.  This  print  cloth,  for  calico,  is  printed  in 
colors  with  engraved  rolls,  somewhat  as  paper  is  printed  by 
a  rotary  printing  press.  For  other  goods,  such  as  ginghams, 
the  yarn  is  dyed,  and  is  then  woven  in  stripes  or  checks. 
With  the  growth  of  cotton  mills  through  the  Southern  States, 
where  the  coarser  yarns  and  cloth  are  produced  near  the  cotton 
fields,  New. England  manufacturers  began  to  turn  their  atten- 
tion more  and  more  to  the  finer  grades  of  cloth  and  to  the 
mixtures  of  cotton  with  wool  or  silk  which  were  formerly 
imported.  In  order  that  this  industry  may  be  further  im- 
proved, textile  schools,  which  thoroughly  train  young  men  in 
all  its  branches,  have  been  established  by  the  aid  of  the  state 
of  Massachusetts  at  LOWELL,  NEW  BEDFORD,  and  FALL  KIVEK. 

Sharp  competition  has  compelled  constant  effort  to  cheapen 
the  cost  of  manufacture,  for  every  mill  has  striven  to  undersell 


f>4  NEW  ENGLAND 

others  :ind  thus  to  secure  a  larger  market.  Sometimes  this  has 
led  to  the  reduction  of  wages,  and  then  strikes,  disastrous  both 
to  owners  and  operatives,  have  followed.  With  the  progress  of 
invention  it  has  been  necessary,  even  at  great  cost,  to  discard 
old  machines  for  swifter  and  better  ones,  for  without  the  best 
machinery  a  mill  cannot  compete  in  production.  Thus  small 
mills  have  given  way  to  larger  mills  because  in  the  larger  mills 
cloth  is  made  more  economically.  There  are  now  fewer  cotton 
mills  than  a  half  century  ago,  yet  more  cotton  cloth  is  produced. 

Woollen  Manufacturing.  —  Woollen  mills  are  smaller 
than  cotton  mills  and  more  widely  scattered,  many  being 
in  towns  along  the  smaller  rivers.  This  is  natural,  since 
they  were  developed  from  the  many  fulling  and  carding 
mills  that  added  machines  for  spinning  and  weaving 
(p.  50).  At  the  time  when  communication  was  difficult, 
the  abundant  small  water  powers  were  of  much  value  for 
supplying  local  needs.  Berkshire,  where  many  sheep 
were  formerly  raised,  was  then  the  leading  county  of 
Massachusetts  for  woollen  factories.  PITTSFIELD  is  still 
a  centre  for  woollens. 

After  a  tariff  was  placed  on  worsted  cloth,  during  the 
Civil  War,  its  manufacture  developed  in  America.  Like 
cotton  manufacturing,  it  is  centred  in  the  large  mills 
of  cities,  because  when  first  started  it  was  necessary  to 
import  complicated  and  costly  machinery  and  to  bring 
skilled  workmen  from  abroad.  The  mills  of  PROVIDENCE 
lead  in  worsted  manufacture ;  but  worsted  goods  are 
produced  extensively  in  LAWRENCE,  LOWELL,  MANCHES- 
TER, WOONSOCKET,  and  FITCHBURG.  Their  manufacture 
is  being  started  in  smaller  places  since  worsted  machinery 
is  now  made  in  Lowell. 

After  the  wool  has  been  carefully  sorted  into  different 
grades,  it  is  washed  and  passed  through  the  bur  picker,  whence 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURES  55 

it  is  blown  as  light  flecks  of  clean  fibre,  ready  for  bleaching 
and  dyeing.  If  intended  for  woollen  cloth,  the  wool  is  passed 
through  three  carding  machines,  and  is  then  spun  into  a  loose, 
weak,  fuzzy  yarn  of  tangled  fibres.  Cloth  is  loosely  woven 
from  this,  and  fulled  to  close  the  meshes.  For  worsted  cloth 
the  wool  is  of  a  grade  which  does  not  need  cleaning  in  a  bur 
picker.  A  delicate  machine  called  a  comb  removes  all  short 
fibre,  and  lays  the  long  fibres  parallel.  Then  a  strong,  closely 
twisted,  smooth,  hard  yarn  is  spun,  and  this  is  closely  woven 
into  a  cloth  with  a  hard  surface  that  needs  no  fulling. 

In  America  textile  mills  have  usually  performed  all  the 
many  processes  necessary  to  change  the  cotton  and  wool  to 
cloth  ready  for  use.  In  England  separate  mills  do  the  spin- 
ning, weaving,  dyeing,  and  finishing,  for  the  reason  that  each 
process  was  a  separate  trade  before  factories  were  built.  This 
system  has  also  been  adopted  in  New  England  to  some  extent. 
Thus,  there  are  mills  which  spin  yarn  for  sale  to  mills  that  do 
not  produce  enough  for  their  own  looms ;  and  while  some  cotton 
mills  finish  their  own  cloth,  others  send  their  sheetings  to 
bleacheries.  In  a  few  textile  cities  there  are  mills  which  do 
nothing  but  dye,  print,  or  finish  cloth  for  others. 

The  manufacture  of  woollen  carpets  is  important  in 
A  merica,  where  the  prosperity  of  the  people  causes  a  large 
demand  for  floor  coverings.  Although  the  mills  of  New 
England  manufacture  but  a  fifth -of  the  carpets  made  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  great  centre  of  carpet  weaving 
is  at  Philadelphia,  carpet  looms  which  have  proved  the 
best  in  the  world  were  invented  in  Massachusetts.  The 
carpet  mill  at  CLINTON  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  and 
there  are  other  large  mills  located  at  LOWELL,  at  BOSTON, 
at  WORCESTER,  and  at  Thompsonville,  a  village  north  of 
Hartford.  These  mills  produce  most  of  the  more  costly 
carpets  made  in  the  country,  such  as  Axminsters  and 
Wiltons,  also  tapestry  Brussels. 


50  NEW  ENGLAND 

There  are  many  lesser  phases  of  textile  manufactures.  The 
difficult  task  of  making  strong  cotton  thread  for  sewing  ma- 
chines was  first  accomplished  in  America  at  WILLIMANTIC. 
Now  well-known  brands  are  also  made  at  HOLYOKE,  where  the 
great  water  power  (Fig.  14)  is  used  both  by  cotton  and  woollen 
mills.  Although  flax  is  no  longer  grown  in  New  England,  it 
is  imported  for  a  few  mills  that  make  linen  shoe  thread  and 
twines,  or  that  weave  towels  and  other  coarse  linens.  Many 


FIG.  31. 
Looms,  the  Arlington  Mills,  Methuen,  Mass. 


mills  in  New  England  are  engaged  in  the  knitting  of  under- 
wear, hosiery,  and  gloves.  Some  are  in  the  Merrimac  val- 
ley, from  LOWELL  north  to  LACONIA.  American  silk  manufac- 
ture (p.  91)  centres  at  Paterson,  New  Jersey,  but  much  silk 
cloth  is  also  woven  at  the  large  mills  in  SOUTH  MANCHES- 
TER, near  Hartford.  The  greater  part  of  the  American  sewing 
and  machine  silk,  and  floss  and  embroidery  silks  is  made  in 
New  England,  the  largest  mills  being  at  NORTHAMPTON. 


SHOE  MANUFACTURE  57 

Shoe  Manufacture.  Leather.  —  There  were  tanners  and 
shoemakers  among  the  early  colonists.  In  nearly  every 
town  there  was  once  a  tannery,  \yhere  the  hides  taken 
from  the  cattle  killed  for  food  were  converted  into  leather. 
The  hides  lay  for  months  in  the  tan  vats,  soaking  in  water 
which  was  full  of  tannin  obtained  from  hemlock  bark. 
This  changed  the  hides  to  tough  leather  which  would  not 
decay.  When  soft  leather  was  needed,  the  thinner  hides 
were  also  oiled  and  worked  until  pliable  (Fig.  32). 

Since  it  is  cheaper  to  take,  the  hides  to  the  forests  than 
to  transport  the  bark,  the  New  England  tanneries  of  sole 
leather  are  now  among  the  hemlock  forests  of  eastern 
Maine.  Much  sole  leather  is  tanned  in  the  Central  States 
with  oak  bark.  Light  upper  leather,  which  requires  less 
tannin  in  its  manufacture  but  more  skill,  is  made  near  the 
leather  market  of  Boston,  at  PEABODY,  SALEM,  LYNN,  and 
WOBURN.  In  place  of  tannic  acid  from  bark,  chemical 
baths  are  now  used  to  tan  morocco  and  similar  leathers. 

Development.  —  When  not  busy  with  farm  work,  the  early 
shoemakers  made  shoes  for  their  neighbors,  or  went  from 
house  to  house  plying  their  craft.  Seated  on  a  low  bench,  the 
lone  workman  cut,  sewed,  and  hammered  with  rude  tools  like 
those  used  a  thousand  years  before  in  Europe.  Pieces  of  thin 
leather  were  cut  out  and  sewed  together  to  form  the  upper; 
this  was  turned  inside  out,  fitted  over  the  wooden  last,  or  model 
of  the  foot,  and  tacked  to  the  thick  sole.  The  shoe  was  held 
on  the  knee  by  a  strap  passing  under  the  foot  while  the  upper 
and  sole  were  sewed  together.  An  awl  was  used  to  make  a 
path  through  the  pieces  of  stout  leather  for  the  slender  needles. 
The  shoe  was  turned  right  side  out  when  sewed,  again  placed 
on  the  last,  and,  while  held  on  the  lapstone,  pieces  of  heavy 
leather  were  tacked  or  pegged  to  the  sole  to  form  the  tap  and 
heel.  Paste  was  used  to  attach  a  smooth  inner  sole,  and  black- 
ing served  to  color  the  edges,  which  were  then  polished. 


;,S  NEW  ENGLAND 

The  steps  in  the  process  of  shoemaking  are  much  the  same 
to-day,  but  there  has  been  a  wonderful  change  in  the  tools 
used.  Once  a  pair  of  shoes  was  a  day's  work;  now  they  may 
be  made  in  twenty  minutes  or  less. 

Shoes  were  made  near  Boston  in  early  colonial  times,  and 
the  success  of  the  industry  led  expert  shoemakers  to  come 
from  England.  Some  who  were  skilled  in  making  ladies' 
shoes  settled  at  Lynn ;  others  established  the  making  of 


FIG.  32. 
A  tannery  at  Lowell.    Glazing  calfskins. 

men's  shoes  in  towns  south  of  Boston.  Each  section  has  ever 
since  maintained  its  specialty.  Master  shoemakers  had  tiny 
shops  where  two  or  three  workmen  aided  them  in  making  up 
Jots  of  shoes,  which  were  afterwards  carried  to  Boston  for  sale. 
At  a  somewhat  later  time  it  was  the  custom  to  fit  up  large 
central  rooms  for  cutting  the  leather  into  all'  the  necessary 
parts  for  shoes.  These  were  then  made  into  bundles  which 
were  given  out  to  surrounding  shops,  or  sent  to  the  country 
towns  of  eastern  Massachusetts,  and  even  into  Maine.  In  the 
homes  the  uppers  were  sewed  by  women  and  the  heavy  work 
on  the  soles  was  done  by  men.  The  finished  shoes  were  then 


SHOE  MANUFACTURE  59 

returned  to  the  cutting  rooms  really  for  sale.  This  system 
lasted  until  about  I860,  and  in  the  making  of  hand-sewed  shoes 
it  is  still  preserved  in  a  measure. 

The  workmen  in  these  shops  were  of  marked  intelligence, 
and  work  was  often  accompanied  by  the  reading  aloud  of  the 
newspaper  and  the  discussion  of  political  issues.  Shoemaking 
was  confined  to  native  workmen  much  longer  than  other 
manufacturing  industries. 

When  the  sewing  machine  was  invented,  the  stitching  of  the 
uppers  was  transferred  to  the  same  building  as  the  cutting 
room.  Then  came  a  machine  which  could  sew  on  the  sole, 
and  the  shoe  factory  replaced  the  little  shoe  shops.  Machines 
have  been  added  to  perform  every  step  of  the  work,  except- 
ing the  cutting  of  the  parts  of  the  upper,  where  expert  judg- 
ment is  needed  to  cut  the  feather  to  the  best  advantage. 
American  men  and  machines  make  better  and  cheaper  shoes 
than  are  made  in  other  countries,  and  American  shoes  and 
shoe  machinery  are  now  exported. 

Distribution.  —  The  early  factories  were  small  and  some 
were  scattered  through  the  districts  where  shoes  had  been 
made  under  the  old  system.  When  strikes  resulting  from 
the  introduction  of  new  machinery  or  from  questions  of 
wages  became  frequent  at  the  centres  of  shoe  manufactur- 
ing, some  manufacturers  removed  to  country  towns  (p.  95) 
in  the  hope  of  avoiding  labor  troubles. 

To-day  the  tendency  is  to  close  the  small  and  scattered 
factories,  and  to  concentrate  the  business  in  large  plants  in 
the  leading  shoe  cities.  Although  there  are  shoe  factories 
in  some  one  hundred  and  fifty  towns  of  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Maine,  and  a  few  in  each  of  the 
other  New  England  States,  two-thirds  of  the  production 
comes  from  the  cities  of  LYNN,  BROCKTON,  and  HAVER- 
HILL,  and  the  cities  and  towns  near  them.  Many  large 
firms  make  special  shoes  which  they  widely  advertise. 


60  NEW   ENGLAND 

Since  the  discovery  by  Goodyear  that  rubber  may  be  vulcan- 
ized,—  that  is,  heated  in  combination  with  sulphur  so  as  to 
remain  hard  and  durable  in  use,  —  it  has  been  made  into  a 
variety  of  articles  and  fabrics  in  New  England  factories. 
Many  rubber  overshoes  and  boots  are  made  in  southern  New 
England ;  for  instance,  at  MALDEN  and  CHELSEA,  near  Boston. 

Manufactures  of  Metals.  Development.  —  It  is  a  surpris- 
ing fact  that  Massachusetts  was  for  a  hundred  years  the 
chief  seat  of  American  iron  manufacture,  and  mined  its 
own  ores.  The  water  soaking  through  the  glacial  soil 
dissolved  much  iron,  and  this  collected  in  rusty  deposits 
in  many  springs,  ponds,  and  swamps.  In  many  sections 
this  inferior  bog  iron  ore  may  still  be  dug  from  swamps 
or  dredged  from  the  pond  bottoms.  Groups  of  farmers 
established  rude  forges  where  the  ore  was  melted  with 
charcoal  fires,  and  either  cast  into  such  articles  as  kettles 
and  cannon,  or  roughly  hammered  into  bar  iron.  In  many 
a  farmer's  chimney  corner  was  a  little  forge  which  was 
kept  busy  during  the  evenings  while  father  and  sons  ham- 
mered out  nails  from  bar  iron. 

During  the  second  century  of  colonization  richer  ores 
were  opened  up  in  western  Massachusetts  and  Connecti- 
cut, and  pig  iron,  good  enough  to  be  used  for  edged  tools, 
was  produced  in  furnaces.  Though  the-  iron  for  the 
Monitor  came  from  near  Mt.  Greylock  in  Massachusetts, 
the  development  of  richer  mines  in  Pennsylvania  and 
the  West  long  ago  led  to  the  closing  of  most  of  the  iron 
mines  in  New  England  (p.  88).  Mills  for  rolling  iron  bars 
and  plates  from  pig  iron  have  also  failed  in  competition 
with  mills  nearer  the  mines  of  Pennsylvania. 

Distribution.  —  New  England  still  has  extensive  manu- 
factures of  metals,  and  these  are  in  part  outgrowths  of  the 


MANUFACTURES   OF  METALS  61 

early  industry.  For  instance,  iron  ore  was  formerly  mined 
at  Brandon,  Vermont,  and  the  casting  of  car  wheels  has 
been  continued  at  RUTLAND,  although  the  pig  iron  now 
comes  from  outside  the  state.  While  most  nails  are  now 
made  near  the  iron  mines,  over  half  the  tacks  of  the  coun- 
try are  still  manufactured  at  TAUNTON  and  thereabouts. 
Stove  foundries  were  early  established  to  meet  a  need  of 
the  climate,  and  they  still  flourish. 

In  general,  New  England  iron  and  steel  manufactures 
are  such  as  require  little  metal,  but  much  skilled  labor  and 
exact  machinery.  Fine  tools  of  the  best  quality  and  finish 
are  made  in  many  places.  The  largest  screw  factory  in 
the  world  is  in  PROVIDENCE.  There  is  a  great  wire  mill 
in  WORCESTER.  In  the  factories  of  many  Connecticut 
cities  and  towns  small  articles  in  hardware  for  buildings, 
carriages,  and  other  uses  are  produced  (p.  84).  Much  elec- 
trical machinery  is  made  in  LYNN.  ,  There  are  great  scale 
works  at  ST.  JOHNSBURY  and  at  RUTLAND  in  Vermont. 

Brass  work  of  all  kinds  is  made  in  the  cities  of  western 
Connecticut,  notably  at  WATERBURY  (p.  89).  The  exten- 
sive manufacture  of  jewellery  and  silverware,  especially  in 
and  near  PROVIDENCE,  has  developed  from  the  early  in- 
vention and  application  there  of  a  method  of  gold  plating. 
Yankee  ingenuity  constructed  wooden  clocks  in  colonial 
times,  and  now  American-made  watches,  from  WALTHAM, 
WATERBURY,  and  elsewhere,  have  won  world-wide  fame 
both  for  cheapness  and  for  value  as  time-keepers. 

Machinery.  —  Machinery  is  the  most  important  of  the 
New  England  manufactures  of  metals,  and  machine  shops 
are  to  be  found  in  every  manufacturing  city.  Because  the 
manufacture  of  textiles,  shoes,  paper,  and  other  goods 
developed  here,  machine  shops  where  the  ideas  of  the 


i.J  NEW  ENGLAND 

inventors  took  form  are  also  found.  For  instance,  the 
best  of  textile  looms  are  of  New  England  invention,  and 
tlu-iv  are  great  loom  works  at  WORCESTER.  In  fact,  this 
city,  so  centrally  located,  is  a  great  machine  shop  for  sup- 
ply ing  the  needs  of  the  cities  round  about.  In  general, 
the  larger  the  city,  the  more  machinery  made  there  ;  hence 
the  factories  of  Boston  naturally  produce  the  most. 


FIG.  33. 
A  machine  shop.    Making  shuttles  for  sewing  machines. 

Vehicles  of  all  kinds  are  made  in  New  England.  The 
coaches  and  wagons  of  CONCORD,  New  Hampshire,  were 
famous  long  ago ;  and  the  carriages  of  AMESBURY,  Massa- 
chusetts, are  also  widely  known.  Bicycles  are  manufac- 
tured at  many  points,  notably  at  CHICOPEE  and  HARTFORD. 
Factories  for  motor  carriages  are  multiplying  now.  The 
workshops  of  the  railway  systems  form  great  industrial 
plants  in  some  cities  (p.  85);  and  in  PROVIDENCE  and 
TAUNTON  there  are  important  locomotive  works. 


COMMERCE  63 

Commerce.  Trade  Centres.  —  Most  New  England  vil- 
lages are  trading  points  for  the  surrounding  farmers. 
Every  country  store  purchases  eggs  and  butter,  and  in  re- 
turn sells  groceries,  dry  goods,  tools  and  other  wares. 
The  cities  are  centres  of  trade  for  still  larger  districts. 
Instead  of  one  little  store  there  are  many  large  ones,  each 
keeping  a  full  assortment  of  goods  in  some  one  line.  The 
stores  of  the  larger  cities  bear  the  same  trade  relation  to 
the  nearby  towns  that  the  traders  in  the  villages  bear  to 
the  surrounding  country.  Wholesale  stores  and  agents 
in  the  large  cities  receive  the  surplus  of  the  farms,  goods 
from  the  factories,  and  many  products  from  outside  of 
New  England,  and  distribute  them  to  retail  stores  in  the 
towns.  Some  large  ports  receive  raw  materials  —  such 
as  fibres,  rubber,  and  dyestuffs  —  for  the  factories  situated 
inland,  and  send  away  manufactured  products  from  these 
factories.  These  ports  are  therefore  great  trade  centres. 

Boston.  —  Boston  is  the  greatest  centre  for  New  Eng- 
land commerce.  It  is  connected  by  steamship  lines  with 
European  ports,  with  most  Atlantic  ports  of  North 
America,  and  with  the  West  Indies.  The  location  of 
Boston  on  a  harbor  at  the  most  westerly  point  of  the  coast 
north  of  Cape  Cod,  and  so  centrally  situated  that  railway 
lines  were  readily  built  so  as  to  radiate  to  all  the  great 
mill  cities,  has  enabled  its  merchants  to  make  it  the  second 
seaport  of  the  United  States. 

As  a  wool  market  Boston  is  surpassed  by  London  alone. 
The  costly  stocks  of  wool  kept  in  the  city  offer  so  wide 
a  range  of  choice  that  they  attract  buyers  regularly  from 
Philadelphia  and  from  mills  elsewhere  in  the  country. 
The  offices  of  more  than  a  hundred  firms  engaged  in  the 
sale  of  wool  are  found  grouped  near  the  Southern  Union 


64  XEW  ENGLAND 

Station.  A  few  steps  away,  in  great  warehouses  along 
the  water  front,  are  stored  bales  of  wool  from  the  Western 
and  Southern  States,  from  Australia,  and  in  fact  from  all 
the  world.  Here  the  would-be  purchaser  may  select  wool 
of  just  the  quality  he  needs. 

Boston  imports  more  Egyptian  and  Peruvian  cotton 
than  any  other  American  port,  and  it  also  exports  much 
American  cotton.  Brokers  have  agents  in  the  Southern 
States  buying  up  cotton,  which  is  sold  in  Boston  from 
samples,  and  then  shipped  directly  to  the  mill  from  the 
cotton  gins.  The  banks  loan  the  money  to  purchase 
the  cotton,  and  later  receive  their  money,  with  interest, 
when  the  mills  have  made  the  fibre  into  cloth. 

Boston,  therefore,  is  a  great  financial  centre,  not  only  invest- 
ing capital  to  establish  mills,  but  also  supplying  that  which  is 
needed  for  their  transactions.  There  is  a  United  States  sub- 
treasury  in  the  city,  which  acts  as  an  agency  of  the  national 
government  in  its  financial  dealings  with  the  people  of  New 
England.  Near  the  sub-treasury  are  many  national  banks, 
where  the  working  capital  of  merchants  is  deposited.  The 
merchants  pay  for  their  goods  by  bank  checks,  which  may  be 
cashed  at  banks  throughout  the  cities  and  towns  of  New  Eng- 
land. In  the  same  portion  of  the  city  is  the  Boston  Stock 
Exchange,  whose  members  act  as  agents  for  people  who  wish 
to  invest  money  in  the  stocks  and  bonds  of  the  many  corpora- 
tions. All  the  great  insurance  companies  of  the  world  have 
offices  or  agencies  in  Boston. 

Boston  is  the  greatest  American  market  for  leather  and 
leather  goods  (p.  57).  Leather  is  shipped  there  from 
tanneries  all  over  the  country  and  a  part  of  it  is  sold  to 
factories  outside  of  New  England.  Some  of  the  shoes 
made  from  this  leather  return  to  Boston  for  sale  ;  in  fact, 
many  shoe  factories  have  Boston  offices  where  their  sam- 


COMMERCE 


65 


FIG.  34. 

View  from  Stock  Exchange  building,  Boston.     Note  the  State  House  dome  at 
the  left,  and  the  old  State  House  in  the  foreground. 


pies  are  displayed  for  examination  by  purchasing  agents, 
who  come  here  from  cities  all  over  the  country. 

Most  of  the  textile  mills,  machine  shops,  and  other  New 
England  factories  also  have  offices  in  Boston  for  the  sale 
of  their  products.  The  business  centre  for  southwestern 
New  England  is  New  York  City,  though  many  large  cor- 
porations have  offices  in  both  cities. 

Populous  commercial  cities  are  the  seats  of  many  and 
varied  manufacturing  plants  because  of  the  abundance  of 
materials  and  labor,  and  the  ready  market.  Boston  leads 


•4- 


66  NEW  ENGLAMt 

other  New  England  cities  in  some  lines  of  manufacture. 
It  leads,  for  example,  in  the  manufacture  of  clothing  and 
also  in  tin-  publishing  and  printing  of  books  and  periodi- 
cals. In  fact,  the  goods  manufactured  in  Boston  far  exceed 
in  value  those  of  any  other  New  England  city.  Further- 
more, while  every  growing  city  employs  men  of  many 
trades  in  erecting  buildings,  —  architects,  contractors,  and 
linns  which  supply  building  materials  are  especially  nu- 
merous in  the  larger  cities,  like  Boston,  where  contracts 
for  work  all  over  New. England  are  awarded. 

Large  cities  are  also  seats  for  the  preparation  of  food 
products  for  shipment  and  sale.  This  is  well  illustrated 
in  Boston  and  surrounding  towns.  Coffee,  imported  at 
Boston,  is  roasted  and  ground  there  ;  spices  are  ground 
and  packed.  Sugar  is  refined  ;  chocolate  is  manufac- 
tured ;  and  candies  are  made  from  both  substances.  Al- 
though cattle  are  slaughtered  in  western  cities,  and  the" 
dressed  beef  shipped  to  many  distributing  centres  in  New 
England,  trainloads  of  hogs  come  to  large  pork-packing 
houses  in  CAMBRIDGE  and  SOMERVILLE,  near  Boston,  there 
to  be  killed  and  dressed  for  the  New  England  market. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

The  "  Bay  State  "  contains  half  the  population  of  New 
England,  although  comprising  but  an  eighth  of  the  area 
of  the  section.  Of  the  fourteen  cities  of  New  England 
having  more  than  sixty  thousand  inhabitants  ten  are  in 
Massachusetts.  Which  are  they  (p.  124)?  Nine  of  these 
largest  cities  and  most  of  the  people  are  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state  which  belongs  to  the  Piedmont  belt.  In 
fact,  nearly  half  the  population,  that  is  one-fourth  of  all 


Cltlcs  wllh  oversoo.ooo:  Bostoi 


Cities  with  100,000  to       ....  

"         ••       25,000  to  100,000:  Fitclllllll 

10,000  to  45.000:  IMltslicli 

County  Seats  with  less  than  10.000:  Barnstab 


HIMQTON 

v    i;    i  ;;/;M 


AND  VICINITY. 

p         Scale  of  Miles. 


MASSACHUSETTS 


67 


in  New  England,  live  in  the  Boston  Basin  and  the  shallow 
valleys  opening  from  it  (Figs.  15  and  36). 

Boston  Basin.  —  The  lowland  of  the  Boston  Basin  is  dotted 
with  druralins,  some  rising  from  the  mud  flats  of  the  har- 
bor as  islands  (Fig.  38),  others  affording  building  sites 


FIG.  36. 
Boston  Basin. 

•:<-y.     Among  these  are  Beacon  Hill,  on  whose  suin- 

1 3d  dome  of  the  State  House  (Fig.  34),  and 

n  hills,  on  which  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill 

lit.     Within  the  basin  are  extensive  salt  marshes, 

level   surface  is  crossed  by  winding  tidal   creeks  ; 

also  areas  of  hard  rocks  of  moderate  ele- 

is  those  of  the  Highland  District  at  Rox- 


t,S  NEW  ENGLAND 


bury.  An  upland  rim  rises  sharply  around  this  oval  basin. 
Its  more  rugged  portions  are  reserved  as  wooded  parks, 
such  as  the  Lynn  Woods  and  the  Middlesex  Fells  at  the 
north,  and  tjie  Blue  Hill  Reservation  at  the  south. 

A  broad  and  deep  channel  has  been  dredged  in  the  har- 
bor, leading  to  the  docks  of  European  steamship  lines  at 
Mast  Boston,  to  the  Navy  Yard  at  Charlestown,  and  to  the 
Boston  wharves  which  are  used  by  steamers  and  schooners 
from  American  ports  (Fig.  35).  The  great  commerce 


FIG.  37. 
Marshes,  creeks,  and  drumlins  of  Revere  (Fig.  36). 

centred  here  has  made  land  about  the  harbor  so  valuable 
that  many  acres  of  marshes  and  mud  flats  have  been  shut 
off  from  the  sea  and  filled  in  as  "made  land."  This  new 
land  is  now  covered  with  costly  buildings  (Fig.  20). 

The  large  cities  of  CAMBRIDGE,  SOMERVILLE,  CHELSEA, 
and  EVERETT  are  continuous  with  BOSTON  on  the  north, 
though  separately  governed.  Soon  after  the  Civil  War 
Charlestown,  Brighton,  Roxbury,  and  Dorchester  were 
annexed  to  Boston  ;  but  BROOKLINE,  although  nearly 
enclosed  by  parts  of  Boston  (Fig.  35),  refused  annexation. 
Its  people,  numbering  twenty  thousand,  prefer  to  retain 
their  town  form  of  government. 


MASSACHUSETTS  69 

Many  cities  and  large  towns  are  situated  just  within 
the  rim  of  the  Boston  Basin,  where  railway  lines  enter 
valleys  leading  from  the  basin.  The  more  important  are 
LYNN,  MALDEN,  MEDFORD,  WALTHAM,  NEWTON,  HYDE 
PARK,  and  QUINCY.  Many  people  who  are  engaged  in 
business  in  Boston  have  their  homes  in  these  cities  and 
towns,  and  in  others  outside  the  basin,  like  DEDHAM 
and  MELROSE.  Most  of  these  suburban  places  have  thriv- 
ing industries  of  their  own.  You  have  already  learned 
what  are  the  leading  industries  of  Lynn,  Chelsea,  Maiden, 
Woburn,  Waltham,  and  Quincy  (pp.  52,  57,  60,  and  61). 
Market  gardening  is  very  important  in  ARLINGTON  and 
other  towns  northwest  of  Boston  (p.  46). 

To  secure  a  pure  and  abundant  supply  of  water  for  the 
dense  population  gathered  in  and  about  Boston  it  is  necessary 
to  bring  it  from  far  inland.     The  great  expense  involved  re- 
quires united  action,  and  therefore  by  state  law  a  Metropolitan 
Water  Board,  appointed  by  the  governor,  expends  the  funds 
raised  by  taxation  in  the  sixteen  cities  and  towns  that  have 
already  entered  the  Metropolitan  Water  District.     Boston  had 
already  built  aqueducts  to  bring  water  from  Lake  Cochituate 
and  from  reservoirs  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Sudbury  River; 
and  now  the  largest  reservoir  in  the  world,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  in  India,  has  been  constructed  in  the  valley  of  the 
Nashua  River  above  Clinton  (Figs.  9  and  35).     The  water  is 
gathered  from  a  large  area  of  upland  southeast  of  Mt.  Wachusett. 
There  is  also  a  Metropolitan  Sewerage  District ;  and  great 
trunk   sewers,   through    the   Mystic,    Charles,   and   Neponset 
••  •   gather  the  sewage  from  the  towns  and  cities  near  Bos- 
carry  it  to  the  outer  harbor.     Besides  parks  owned  by 
id  towns,  a  Metropolitan  Park  Commission  has  charge 
;at  system  of  public  reservations.     These  are  located 
ie  water  front  (Fig.  38),  the  river  banks,  and  on  the 
border,  with  connecting  parkways,  thus  holding  some 
uost  beautiful  portions  of  the  land  for  the  people. 


70  NEW  ENGLAND 


Nantasket  Beach,  part  of  the  metropolitan  park  system.     The  low  curves  on 
the  left  are  drumlin  islands  in  Boston  harbor. 

Naturally  Boston  is  a  great  educational  centre.  The 
colleges  and  professional  schools  which  constitute  Harvard 
University  at  Cambridge  form  a  busy  and  populous  com- 
munity in  themselves,  and  afford  employment  to  many 
people  besides  tlje  hundreds  of  students.  Near  by,  Tufts 
College  overlooks  Medford  from  a  drumlin  hill.  There  is 
a  large  state  school  for  feeble-minded  children  at  Waltham. 
Boston  itself  is  the  seat  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  Boston  University,  Boston  College,  the  Per- 
kins Institute  for  the  Blind,  and  schools  of  music,  paint- 
ing, and  other  fine  arts.  The  Boston  Public  Library 
has  one  of  the  most  valuable  collections  of  books  in  the 
country,  housed  in  a  noble  building. 

Piedmont  Belt.  —  Outside  the  metropolitan  districts  are 
three  groups  of  cities  and  towns  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  shoes.  South  from  Boston,  in  BROCKTON  and 
more  than  a  dozen  nearby  towns,  such  as  WEYMOUTH, 
there  are  large  factories  for  making  fine  shoes  for  men 
and  boys.  Men's  shoes  are  also  made  in  the  factories  of 
FRAMINGHAM,  MILFORD,  and  many  towns  to  the  west- 


MASSACHUSETTS  71 

ward,  while  MARLBORO  ranks  fourth  among  New  England 
cities  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes.  North  of  Boston, 
women's  shoes  are  a  specialty,  notably  at  SALEM,  BEV- 
ERLY, and  several  large  towns  near  LYNN,  which  has 
always  been  the  leading  centre  for  this  industry.  What 
places  in  this  district  tan  leather  (p.  57)? 

Farther  from  Boston  most  manufacturing  communities 
of  the  Piedmont  belt  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
textile  goods,  although  the  manufacture  of  shoes  is  also 
important  toward  the  north,  and  that  of  metallic  goods 
toward  the  south.  LOWELL,  the  "  City  of  Spindles,"  and 
LAWRENCE,  where  over  half  the  worsted  cloth  (p.  55) 
made  in  the  state  is  woven,  use  the  water  power  of  the 
Merrimac  (p.  22),  and  also  steam  power.  Textile  mills 
are  also  located  at  the  falls  of  tributary  streams  in  several 
adjoining  towns.  HAVERHILL  ranks  third  among  cities 
making  shoes,  its  specialty  being  women's  low  cut  shoes, 
or  oxfords.  Shoe  manufacture  is  the  leading  industry  at 
NEW  BURY  PORT  (Fig.  30)  also,  and  there  are  shoe  facto- 
ries in  all  the  cities  of  the  Merrimac  valley  and  in  several 
of  its  towns.  AMESBURY  manufactures  carriages. 

WORCESTER,  the  "  heart  of  the  commonwealth,"  is  in  a 
valley  at  the  western  border  of  the  Piedmont  belt.  As  it 
is  the  third  city  of  New  England  in  size,  and  the  trade 
centre  for  surrounding  -factory  villages,  its  manufac- 
tures, in  addition  to  its  great  production  of  machinery 
and  wire  (p.  62),  are  many  and  varied.  CLINTON  manu- 
factures carpets  (p.  55).  SOUTHBRIDGE,  WEBSTER,  and 
other  towns  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Quinebaug  and 
Blackstone  have  many  textile  mills.  Straw  goods  are 
made  in  the  towns  near  FRANKLIN.  Many  years  ago 
hats  were  made  in  this  vicinity  from  braided  straw,  in  imi- 


72  NEW  ENGLAND 

tation  of  those  imported  from  Europe,  and  this  household 
industry  was  later  transferred  to  factories. 

In  Bristol  County  are  the  cotton-manufacturing  cities 
of  FALL  RIVER,  NEW  BEDFORD,  and  TAUNTON  (p.  53). 
Nearly  half  the  products  of  Taunton  are  metallic  goods, 
—  tacks  and  nails,  stoves  and  furnaces,  machines  and 
tools  (pp.  61  and  62).  The  manufacture  of  jewellery 
and  silverware,  which  centres  at  Providence  (p.  61),  has 
brought  prosperity  to  the  neighboring  Massachusetts 
towns,  ATTLEBORO  and  NORTH  ATTLEBORO. 

Owing  to  its  shallow  harbor,  PLYMOUTH  remains  a 
town,  although  it  is  the  oldest  settlement  in  New  England. 
The  products  of  its  various  factories  include  cordage  and 
tacks.  The  city  of  GLOUCESTER  has  a  better  harbor, 
and  has  so  developed  its  early  interest  in  the  fisheries 
that  two-thirds  of  this  business  in  the  state  now  centres 
there  (p.  33).  It  has  manufactories  connected  with  the 
fisheries,  including  fish  glue,  anchors,  nets,  and  twine. 
It  is  also  one  of  the  leading  centres  for  granite  (p.  49). 
Along  the  seacoast,  from  Cape  Ann  to  Plymouth,  many 
Boston  families  have  their  summer  homes. 

In  the  Piedmont  region  there  are  a  number  of  important 
educational  institutions ;  for  instance,  Wellesley  College 
for  women,  at  Wellesley  (Fig.  36).  Worcester  is  the  seat 
of  Clark  University,  the  College  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute. 

Cape  Cod.  —  Cape  Cod  and  the  islands  of  Martha's 
Vineyard  and  Nantucket  consist  of  moraine  hills  and 
sandy  plains  that  were  deposited  from  the  glacier  (p.  8). 
Their  soils  are  not  generally  fertile,  and  large  areas  are 
covered  with  a  scrubby  growth  of  trees,  where  a  few  deer 
still  live.  Once  all  the  towns  were  prosperous,  and  ex- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


73 


tensively  engaged  in  fishing  and  commerce.  Now,  since 
more  than  half  the  fishing  schooners  of  the  Cape  sail  from 
PROVINCETOWN,  Nantucket  and  the  little  villages  of 
Cape  Cod  beyond  Barnstable  are  losing  population.  Many 
summer  residents,  attracted  by  the  ocean  breezes,  which 
make  the  summer  climate  cooler  than  that  of  interior 
counties,  have  built  cottages  in  the  western  towns  of 
Cape  Cod,  and  on  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nantucket. 


FIG.  39. 
Outer  cliff  of  Cape  Cod  —  Highland  Light  (p.  13). 

Nantucket  was  formerly  celebrated  for  its  whaling  industry. 
Whales  were  numerous  near  the  island  at  first.  When  sighted, 
boats  were  manned,  the  whales  harpooned,  and  the  blubber,  or 
fat,  made  into  oil.  The  demand  for  the  oil  for  use  in  lamps 
made  the  industry  important,  and  the  daring  sailors  of  NEW 
BEDFORD,  NANTUCKET,  STONINGTON,  NEW  LONDON,  and  many 
lesser  ports,  hunted  whales  and  seals  in  all  the  oceans.  Partly 
on  account  of  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  whales  and  partly 
because  of  the  discovery  of  petroleum  and  the  use  of  kerosene 
oil,  the  whaling  industry  has  declined.  There  is  only  a  small 
American  whaling  fleet  to-day,  and  the  chief  value  of  the  catch 
is  in  the  whalebone. 

As  already  mentioned  (p.  43),  cranberries  are  an  important 


74  NEW  ENGLAND 

agricultural  product  from  Plymouth  to  Provincetown.  The 
rich  soil  of  the  bogs  is  cleared  of  bushes,  and  covered  with 
sand  to  prevent  the  easy  growth  of  weeds.  Cranberry  plants 
are  set  out,  and  in  time  they  cover  the  sand  with  a  mat  of 
vines,  which  are  crowded  with  dark  red  berries  in  September. 
Winds  from  the  sea  tend  to  prevent  early  frosts.  Many 
children  share  in  the  work  of  carefully  picking  the  berries. 

Connecticut  Valley.  — The  densest  population  in  western 
Massachusetts  is  in  the  southern  part  of  the  broad  Con- 
necticut valley  (Fig.  15).  Where  the  Connecticut  and 
its  tributaries  have  cut  away  the  sands  of  the  flood-plain 
terraces  to  the  sandstone  ledges  beneath  (p.  10),  the 
water  power  available  has  occasioned  the  growth  of  the 
manufacturing  cities  of  HOLYOKE  (Fig.  14),  CHICOPEE, 
and  NORTHAMPTON,  and  of  a  half  dozen  towns  ,of  which 
WESTFIELD  is  the  largest.  SPRINGFIELD,  the  railway 
and  trade  centre  for  the  district,  has  become  its  largest 
city.  It  has  varied  manufactures.  Firearms  are  made 
in  the  United  States  arsenal  here.  What  manufacturing 
interests  are  prominent  in  the  other  cities  (pp.  56,  62)  ? 
At  the  northern  part  of  the  valley,  where  the  railway  that 
passes  through  the  Hoosac  Tunnel  crosses  from  the  val- 
ley of  the  Millers  River  to  that  of  the  Deerfield,  there  is 
situated  the  pretty  town  of  GREENFIELD,  a  railway  centre. 
Near  by  are  the  mills  of  TURNER'S  FALLS.  There  are 
well  tilled  farms  throughout  the  valley  (p.  83). 

HOLYOKE  is  the  leading  American  city  in  the  manufacture 
of  fine  paper  from  rags.  The  industry  is  important  at  other 
places  in  the  Connecticut  valley.  Rags  are  received  from  the 
nearby  seaports  and  great  cities,  and  the  water  of  this  section 
is  specially  adapted  to  paper  manufacture.  In  the  paper  mills 
the  rags  are  sorted  and  freed  from  buttons  and  dust,  then  cut, 
boiled,  and  soaked  in  chemicals  until  they  form  a  mass  of  pure 


MA  SSA  CHU  SETTS 


75 


white  pulp.  This  is  washed,  ground  finer  still,  colored  to  the 
shade  desired,  and  then  made  into  paper  (p.  41).  The  sheets  are 
dried,  rolled  smooth,  cut  to  size,  and  prepared  for  sale. 

Some  of  this  high-grade  paper  is  made  into  envelopes  and 
letter  sheets,  and  some  is  sold  to  be  made  into  ledgers  or  to  be 
printed  as  bonds  and  stock  certificates. 


FIG.  40. 
The  Connecticut  Valley  from  Mt.  Holyoke.    Compare  Fig.  2. 

The  pleasant  and  prosperous  Connecticut  valley  is  the 
seat  of  numerous  important  colleges  and  higher  schools 
throughout  its  length.  In  Massachusetts  are  Amherst  Col- 
lege and  the  State  Agricultural  College  at  AMHERST,  and 
two  colleges  for  women,  —  Mount  Holyoke  College  at 
SOUTH  HADLEY,  and  Smith  College  at  NORTHAMPTON. 

Uplands  and  Valleys.  —  The  decreasing  population  of 
the  upland  towns,  their  deserted  farms,  the  small  trading 


76  NEW  ENGLAND 

villages,  the  coming  of  summer  boarders  and  summer  resi- 
dents, have  been  mentioned.  The  only  large  towns  on 
the  central  upland  are  GARDNER,  with  its  chair  factories, 
and  SPENCER,  with  its  shoe  shops,  each  situated  near 
where  the  main  line  of  a  railway  rises  to  the  upland  level. 

The  largest  places  are  in  the  narrow  valleys  where  the 
rivers  afford  water  power  and  the  railways  communication. 
PALMER  and  WARE  toward  Springfield,  and  FITCHBURG 
and  LEOMINSTER  at  the  north,  are  good  examples.  In  the 
city  of  FITCHIJURG  a  great  variety  of  products  is  manu- 
factured in  the  large  worsted,  cotton,  and  paper  mills,  the 
machine  shops,  shoe  shops,  and  bicycle  works. 

In  Berkshire  County  the  Housatonic  and  Hoosac  rivers 
have  cut  an  open  and  fertile  valley  in  a  belt  of  limestone 
rocks,  and  in  this  valley  many  people  live.  Marble  is 
quarried  at  LEE.  At  the  north  the  railway  from  Boston 
through  the  long  tunnel  beneath  Hoosac  Mountain  has 
helped  to  bring  prosperity  to  the  cotton  mills  of  ADAMS 
and  to  the  textile  mills  and  shoe  shops  of  the  city  of 
NORTH  ADAMS. 

Williams  College  is  in  WILLIAMSTOWN.  The  city  of 
PITTSFIELD,  on  the  main  line  of  the  Boston  and  Albany, 
is  well  located  to  secure  the  trade  of  the  Berkshire  valley. 
Woollen  cloth,  electrical  machinery,  and  varied  products 
are  made  here.  Fine  papers  are  made  in  several  of  the 
towns  of  the  county.  All  the  paper  for  bank  notes  is 
made  at  DALTON.  In  towns  south  of  Pittsfield,  and 
especially  at  LENOX,  the  beautiful  scenery  has  led  wealthy 
people  from  New  York  to  erect  costly  dwellings  for  sum- 
mer homes.  The  summit  of  Mount  Greylock  is  a  state 
reservation,  and  other  reservations  are  planned. 


iooooo 

K5.000  to  100,000:PaWtlK'ket 

10.000  to  25,000:  Newport 

Villages  with 

000  to  10,000:  llri-l  "I 

Capital:©  County  Seats:® 
Other  Places :  • 


FIG.  41. 


RHODE   ISLAND  77 

RHODE   ISLAND 

Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union,  is  remark- 
able for  having  the  largest  population  for  its  area  of  any 
state.  But  the  people  are  not  uniformly  distributed 
throughout  its  territory.  Four-fifths  live  at  the  head  of 
Narragansett  Bay  and  along  the  rivers  centring  there, 
making  this  district,  with  the  exception  of  the  Boston 
Basin,  the  most  densely  settled  in  New  England  (Fig.  15). 

Most  of  the  Narragansett  Basin  within  the  state  has 
been  submerged,  or  drowned,  by  a  sinking  of  the  land. 
This  has  caused  good  harbors  near  the  falls  which  occur 
where  the  streams  descend  from  the  uplands  bordering  the 
basin  (p.  53).  A  profitable  commerce  early  developed 
at  these  inland  harbors,  and  some  of  the  capital  gained  was 
invested  in  manufacturing  at  the  nearby  water  powers 
(p.  23).  More  recently  great  mills  dependent  upon  coal 
for  power  have  been  built  at  the  head  of  the  bay.  Thus 
the  physiography  of  Rhode  Island  has  enabled  its  people 
to  become  so  successful  a  manufacturing  community  that 
the  state  stands  preeminent  in  the  value  of  its  manu- 
factures as  compared  with  the  size  of  its  population. 

Textile  manufactures  constitute  half  the  total  product, 
machinery  and  metal  goods  an  eighth,  and  jewellery  and 
silverware  nearly  as  large  a  proportion.  Rubber  shoes 
are  the  most  important  minor  product. 

Providence  and  Vicinity.  —  PROVIDENCE  is  the  capital  of 
Rhode  Island.  It  was  originally  a  lumber-shipping  port, 
although  now  the  remaining  wooded  tracts  of  the  uplands 
and  the  swamps  supply  little  except  firewood.  A  large 
foreign  commerce  developed  here  (p.  20),  since  its  harbor, 
like  that  of  Boston  (p.  63),  is  centrally  located  at  the  head 


78 


NEW  ENGLAND 


of  a  bay.  While  the  exports  are  insignificant,  because  the 
state's  manufactured  products  are  sent  to  New  York  or 
Boston  for  shipment,  raw  materials  are  still  imported. 
Typical  imports  are  fibres,  steel  bars,  precious  stones,  india 
rubber,  dyewoods,  and  chemicals.  Coasting  vessels  bring 
much  coal,  also  lumber  and  building  materials ;  while  the 
steamship  lines  from  New  York  and  other  coast  ports 
carry  general  merchandise  as  well  as  passengers. 

Among  New  England  cities  Providence  is  next  to  Bos- 
ton in  size,  for  its  position  has  favored  manufacturing  as 


FIG.  42. 

Providence.    Railway  station  in  foreground,  Capitol  on  the  right,  and  Normal 
School  in  the  center,  in  the  distance. 

well  as  commerce.  The  value  of  its  manufactures  is  half 
the  total  for  the  state.  Providence  leads  New  England 
cities  in  the  manufacture  of  worsted  goods  (p.  54),  and  has 
extensive  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  printing  works,  as  well  as 
cotton  mills.  Almost  all  the  jewellery  and  silverware  made 
in  the  state  is  manufactured  here,  also  a  large  proportion 
of  the  iron  and  steel  products,  which  include  heavy  ma- 
chinery, screws,  files,  and  fine  tools.  Suburban  manufac- 
turing villages  in  EAST  PROVIDENCE,  JOHNSTON,  and 
CRANSTON  are  rapidly  growing  as  residential  places; 


RHODE  ISLAND  79 

and  a  system  of  sewers  has  been  extended  to  the  suburbs. 
Providence  is  the  seat  of  Brown  University. 

North  of  Providence,  the  cities  of  PAWTUCKET  and 
CENTRAL  FALLS,  with  adjoining  villages,  form  a  smaller 
manufacturing  centre,  which  is  reached  by  coal  vessels  of 
light  draught  (p.  23).  Cotton  goods  are  here  more  im- 
portant than  woollens,  and  there  are  cotton  mills  in  suc- 
cessive villages  along  the  Blackstone  River,  in  the  towns 
of  CUMBERLAND  and  LINCOLN  (Fig.  29).  WOONSOCKET 
is  the  third  largest  city  in  the  state.  It  produces  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  machinery,  and  rubber  shoes. 

At  the  water  powers  of  the  smaller  rivers,  in  the  villages 
of  JOHNSTON,  BURRILLVILLE,  and  several  towns  northwest  of 
Providence  and  west  of  Woonsocket,  woollen  goods  are  manu- 
factured. Southwest  of  Providence  there  are  many  cotton  mill 
villages  on  the  Pawtuxet  Kiver  (p.  52),  in  the  populous  town 
of  WARWICK  and  in  COVENTRY.  The  towns  of  Bristol  County, 
on  the  low  peninsulas  (Fig  43)  that  extend  into  the  bay  between 
Fall  River  and  Providence,  also  mamifacture  cotton  and 
woollen  goods.  BARRINGTON  has  great  brickyards.  BRISTOL 
is  widely  known,  since  several  noted  yachts  have  been  btiilt 
there  to  defend  the  America's  Cup  against  English  challengers. 
Torpedo  boats  for  the  navy  are  also  built  at  Bristol. 

Narragansett  Bay.  —  Many  of  the  low  hills  of  the  former 
Narragansett  lowland  are  now  islands  (p.  7),  separating 
the  bay  into  north  and  south  channels.  The  outer  end  of 
the  island  of  Aquidneck,  or  Rhode  Island,  is  composed  of 
granite,  and  protects  the  fine  harbor  of  NEWPORT.  A 
large  foreign  commerce  was  developed  there  in  colonial 
times.  Later  this  was  lost  to  mainland  ports  like  Provi- 
dence ;  but  the  outer  harbor,  that  of  Newport,  lias  con- 
tinued to  be  most  convenient  for  fishing  fleets.  Now, 


80 


NEW  ENGLAND 


however,  there  are  often  more  costly  yachts  than  fishing 
boats  in  the  harbor  (p.  34),  for  Newport  is  the  most, 
famous  and  fashionable  coast  resort  of  the  country.  Many 
stately  dwellings,  the  summer  homes  of  wealthy  people  of 
New  York  and  other  cities,  overlook  the  ocean  along  the 
Cliff  Walk.  The  city  was  formerly  a  state  capital.  Its 
manufacturing  interests  are  small. 


FIG.  43. 
Narragansett  Bay,  looking  from  Providence. 

Many  points  on  the  islands  and  the  shoves  of  Narragansett 
Bay  are  frequented  by  summer  visitors,  and  Rhode  Island 
clambakes  have  long  been  a  famous  attraction.  NARRAGAN- 
SETT PIER  and  JAMESTOWN  are  well-known  resorts ;  so  also  is 
the  town  of  NEW  SHOREHAM  on  Block  Island. 

The  fisheries  form  a  minor  industry.  Near  the  head  of  the 
bay,  oysters  (p.  86)  and  scallops  are  dredged  in  the  shallow 
waters,  and  clams  are  dug  on  the  mud  flats.  Some  lobsters  are 
taken  in  the  lobster  pots,  or  traps  (Fig.  62),  that  are  set  in  the 
deeper  waters  outside  the  bay.  Many  of  the  shell-fish,  and 
the  food  fish  taken  by  vessels,  are  sent  by  night  boats  and 
trains  to  the  early  morning  markets  of  Boston  and  New  York. 


RHODE  ISLAND  81 

The  menhaden  fishery  is  of  special  importance.  Menhaden 
are  small  fish,  too  bony  and  oily  to  be  valued  for  food,  but 
very  abundant.  In  the  warm  season  great  schools  appear  in 
the  shallow  waters  about  Long  Island,  and  large  numbers  are 
seined  (p.  37)  and  taken  to  the  factories  at  TIVERTON,  where 
the  fish  oil  is  extracted  and  the  remainder  made  into  fertilizer. 

The  islands  and  shores  of  the  bay  have  well-cultivated 
farm  lands  ;  and  near  the  cities,  as  would  naturally  be  ex- 
pected, the  production  of  milk  and  vegetables  is  important. 
There  are  large  market  gardens  at  CRANSTON.  Poultry 
farms  are  especially  numerous  in  LITTLE  COMPTON. 

Uplands.  —  The  low  uplands  in  the  western  part  of  the 
state  are  sparsely  peopled,  some  towns  that  lie  away  from 
the  railways  having  less  than  a  thousand  inhabitants. 
The  upland  portions  of  other  towns  contain  abandoned 
farms,  and  have  lost  population  (p.  25).  While  many 
immigrants  from  Europe  and  Canada  have  found  employ- 
ment in  the  manufacturing  cities  and  villages  (p.  29), 
the  upland  farmers  are  descendants  of  the  early  settlers. 

The  streams  from  the  southern  slopes  of  the  upland  are 
checked  by  the  line  of  moraine  hills  along  the  coast  (p.  8 
and  Fig.  6),  and  form  several  lakes  and  extensive  swamps, 
which  overflow  westward  as  the  Pawcatuck  River.  These 
swamps  were  once  a  refuge  for  the  Indians,  and  here  many 
were  killed  in  the  greatest  battle  of  King  Philip's  War. 
The  Pawcatuck  valley  to-day  has  prosperous  farms,  and 
the  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanical  Arts  is 
at  KINGSTON.  Woollen  cloth  is  made  in  the  manufactur- 
ing villages  located  at  water  powers  in  this  section  (p.  54), 
for  the  Shore  Line  railway  from  Boston  to  New  York 
affords  an  outlet  for  the  goods  made. 

The  southern  coast  is  marked  by  a  wave-built  bar  and 


82  .v/-:ir  ENGLAND 

sluillow  lagoons  (p.  13).  Since  there  are  no 
harbors,  few  people  live  on  the  shore  and  the  moraine. 
WKSTEULY,  the  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pawcatuck 
River,  is  the  largest  town  of  Washington  County.  Its 
factories  produce  cotton  an,d  woollen  goods,  printing 
presses,  and  other  machinery,  and  there  are  important 
granite  quarries  (p.  49).  WATCH  HILL,  at  the  western 
end  of  the  moraine,  is  a  summer  resort. 

CONNECTICUT 

Central  Rowland.  —  Most  of  Connecticut  consists  of  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  New  England  upland  ;  but  the  state 
is  crossed  from  north  to  south  by  the  sandstone  lowland 
of  the  Connecticut  valley.  Nearly  half  the  people  of  the 
state  live  in  this  lowland  strip,  for  several  industries  find 
favorable  conditions  there  (compare  p.  74).  For  instance, 
the  sandstones  are  quarried  for  building  purposes,  and  the 
blocks  are  shipped  down  the  river  to  coast  cities. 

The  Connecticut  River  and  its  tributaries  occupy  the 
valley  north  of  Middletowri  ;  the  deep  clayey  loam  of  the 
river  terraces  (p.  10)  is  fertile,  and  agriculture  has  pros- 
pered here  from  the  earliest  days.  At  Middletown  the 
river  turns  eastward  in  its  course  to  the  Sound  at  Say- 
brook  ;  but  it  has  worn  only  a  narrow  valley  in  the  hard 
rocks  of  the  upland.  The  broad  lowland  continues  to 
New  Haven,  the  sandstones  having  been  removed,  as  fast 
as  they  weathered,  by  the  Quinnipiac  and  other  small 
streams.  This  part  of  the  valley  is  overspread  by  glacial 
sands  and  is  less  fertile  than  the  flood-plain  terraces. 

The  lowland  conditions  are  more  favorable  to  agricul- 
ture than  those  of  the  uplands.  The  soil  is  better  and  the 


Shippan  Pt. 


Greenwich  Pt. 

"CAPTAItlS    I. 


S0    U  N   D 


CTIOUT. 


3  ot  Mil.-,. 
U) 


LONG 
ISLAND 


6UH.  ISLANDS  « 

V.OM  '-/p=»  Cltle*  with  over  100.000:  PfCW    HilVCll 

\J  Cllle.  with  25.000  to  100.000:  Hill't  forU 

Clilci  and  Boroughs  with  10,000  to  M.OOO:  Xrrillrn 

Cities  :iii'l  Horuughs  with    5.000  to  Id.WKi:  .Noru  ulk 

j  Sots  with  Icsi  than  5.000:  Lltchtield 

I'sipitnl  :  •»  County  Scats:® 

Other  pluui  :•  Kailruails: 


Fir.  44. 


CONNECTICUT 


83 


FIG.  45. 
The  Hanging  Hills  of  Meriden,  formed  by  broken  and  tilted  lava  beds  (p.  7). 

climate  milder.  Dairy  farms  and  market  gardens  (pp.  46 
and  47)  abound  in  the  lowlands  near  the  cities,  and  some 
valley  farms  raise  garden  seeds  (p.  48).  There  are  large 
peach  orchards.  Much  seedleaf,  or  Havana,  tobacco  is 
grown,  and  it  is  sold  for  use  as  cigar  wrappers. 

The  heavy  soils  of  the  lowest  terrace,  containing  much  clay 
and  fine  silt,  and  therefore  retentive  of  moisture,  give  a  large 
yield  of  heavy,  coarse  tobacco.  The  light  sandy  soils  of  higher 
terraces  produce  a  light-colored,  thin-textured  leaf,  which  is 
now  much  preferred.  The  leaves  are  dried  and  cured  in  to- 
bacco barns.  These  have  walls  with  many  shutters,  which 
are  opened  in  pleasant  weather  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate 
through  the  tobacco  as  it  hangs  within. 

The  growth  of  cities  and  large  towns  in  the  Connecticut 
valley  lowland  is  due  to  the  commercial  advantages  and 
the  consequent  development  of  manufacturing  by  the 
energy  and  inventive  enterprise  of  the  people.  Even  in 
colonial  days,  clocks,  tinware,  and  "  Yankee  notions " 
were  made  by  hand  in  the  valley  towns  and  sold  from 
pedlers'  carts.  The  railways  that  have  easily  been  built 
along  the  lowland  have  greatly  stimulated  production. 
They  bring  the  coal,  metals,  fibres,  etc.,  for  use  in  the 


84  NEW  ENGLAND 

factories,  and  convey  the  manufactured  goods  to  all  parts 
of  the  country  or  to  New  York  for  export. 

Instead  of  producing  large  amounts  of  a  few  staple  prod- 
ucts like  cotton  cloth  or  shoes,  the  factories  of  every  city 
and  town  make  a  great  variety  of  goods.  More  than  twelve 
hundred  articles  and  kinds  of  products  are  listed  in  the 
state  reports  as  regularly  manufactured  in  Connecticut. 
However,  various  brass  goods  constitute  over  a  fourth  of 
the  value  of  the  state's  entire  product ;  and  textiles, 
manufactures  of  steel  and  iron,  and  rubber  goods  aggregate 
nearly  half  the  total.  Paper  goods  (p.  74),  silver  and 
plated  ware,  corsets,  hats,  and  musical  instruments  are 
produced  to  the  value  of  several  million  dollars  each. 

HARTFOKD,  the  capital,  owes  much  of  its  growth  to  its 
position  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Connecticut 
(p.  23).  Numerous  steam  and  electric  railways  radiate 
from  the  city  through  the  surrounding  agricultural  coun- 
try and  manufacturing  towns.  Naturally,  therefore,  it  is 
a  great  trading  and  business  centre.  There  are  extensive 
manufacturing  plants,  which  make  machinery,  firearms, 
bicycles,  and  many  other  goods;  and  many  insurance 
companies  have  their  home  offices  in  Hartford. 

Toward  Springfield  there  are  a  few  manufacturing  villages. 
For  example,  there  are  great  carpet  mills  at  Thompsonville 
(p.  55),  and  powder  mills  at  Hazardville,  two  villages  of  EN- 
FIELD.  Beyond  the  suburb  of  EAST  HARTFORD  are  the  silk 
mills  of  SOUTH  MANCHESTER,  where  several  generations  of  mill 
owners  have  lived  near  their  operatives  and  cared  for  their 
welfare.  An  electric  road  extends  to  ROCKVILLE,  at  the  upland 
border,  where  woollen  goods  and  other  textiles  are  made. 

A  few  miles  to  the  south  of  Hartford  is  the  city  of 
NEW  BRITAIN,  the  leading  centre  for  the  manufacture 


CONNECTICUT 


85 


of  hardware.  BRISTOL  and  SOUTHINGTON  are  the  larg- 
est of  several  nearby  manufacturing  towns.  A  little 
farther  south,  MERIDEN  produces  more  silver-plated  ware 
than  any  other  city  in  the  country,  and  MIDDLETOWN  and 
WALLINGFORD  are  important  manufacturing  places. 
Every  one  of  these  six  manufacturing  communities  contains 
many  factories,  which  make  a  great  variety  of  products. 

The  largest  city  of  Connecticut  is  NEW  HAVEN,  which 
resembles  Boston  and  Providence  in  its  situation  at  the 
head  of  the  drowned  portion  of  a  lowland  basin.  In 


FIG.  4(j. 
New  Haven  from  East  Rock.    Compare  Fig.  2. 

colonial  days  it  exported  meat  and  lumber  to  the  West 
Indies.  After  the  Revolution  its  commerce  increased, 
and  a  large  trade  was  carried  on  with  China  ;  but  since 
the  Civil  War  manufacturing  has  been  the  leading  inter- 
est. Raw  materials  are  supplied  and  products  distributed 
by  an  extensive  coastwise  trade.  The  early  manufactures 
of  carriages,  clocks,  and  locks  are  now  supplemented  by 
those  of  firearms,  rubber  goods,  and  other  articles.  The 
main  offices  and  the  construction  and  repair  shops  of  the 
great  railway  system  of  southern  New  England  are  at 
New  Haven,  and  give  support  to  a  tenth  of  the  people. 


86  NEW   ENGLAM) 

There  is  a  fine  park  system,  which  includes  parts  of  the 
bay  shores  and  affords  views  from  East  Rock  (Fig.  46) 
and  West  Rock,  which  are  lava  ridges.  The  beautifully 
shaded  streets  about  Yale  University  and  the  "  Green  " 
have  suggested  the  name  "  Elm  City  "  for  New  Haven. 

Yale  University  is  one  of  the  leading  educational  insti- 
tutions of  the  country,  and  most  of  the  higher  schools  of 
the  state  are  likewise  in  the  cities  of  the  Connecticut 
valley  lowland.  Trinity  College  occupies  a  commanding 
site  in  the  outskirts  of  Hartford,  and  Middletown  is  the 
seat  of  Wesleyan  University. 

Coast.  —  The  coast  of  Connecticut  is  less  irregular  than 
that  of  Maine  because  the  land  is  lower  and  less  deeply 
drowned  ;  but  the  large  rivers  of  the  state  have  long  tidal 
estuaries,  and  there  are  many  small  harbors.  Sands  and 
clays  from  the  melting  glacier  filled  the  heads  of  many 
bays,  forming  plains  which  are  easily  cultivated.  The 
growth  of  salt  marshes,  as  at  New  Haven  (Fig.  46),  has 
further  reduced  the  size  of  the  indentations. 

The  sheltered  waters  of  Long  Island  Sound  favor  the 
growth  of  oysters  ;  and  the  planting  of  oyster  beds  and 
dredging  for  oysters  are  important  along  the  entire  coast. 
Most  oysters  are  brought  to  market  at  NEW  HAVEN,  SOUTH 
NORWALK,  and  other  large  ports  near  New  York  City. 

When  oysters  became  scarce  on  the  natural  beds  along  the 
shore  of  Connecticut,  they  were  brought  in  schooner  loads  from 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  New  Haven  harbor,  and  laid  down  on  a 
sandspit  there  to  fatten  for  market  in  the  fall.  Small  oysters 
were  also  dredged  in  the  Sound  and  placed  on  private  grounds 
in  the  shallow  waters  of  many  bays,  and,  after  a  few  years' 
growth,  were  taken  up  for  market.  The  oyster,  when  first 
born,  swims  or  floats  freely  in  the  water,  but  soon  attaches 


CONNECTICUT  87 

itself  to  any  clean,  hard  substance  it  meets.  Therefore  it  came 
to  be  the  practice  to  scatter  mother  oysters  over  selected  por- 
tions of  the  bottom  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  at  the  spawning 
season,  early  in  July,  to  spread  the  same  ground  freely  with 
boat  loads  of  old  oyster-shells  to  which  the  young  oysters 
might  attach  themselves.  Thus  many  oysters  were  led  to. 
settle  and  grow  in  places  where  there  had  formerly  been  few. 
To-day  the  bottom  of  Long  Island  Sound,  out  to  the  New  York 
state  line,  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  private  owners. 

In  years  past,  NEW  LONDON  and  STONINGTON  were 
very  prosperous  ports,  with  great  whaling  and  sealing 
fleets  (p.  73).  Now  the  manufacture  of  textile  goods  and 
machinery  is  more  important  to  them  than  commerce  or 
fisheries.  At  each  port  steamboats  plying  to  New  York 
exchange  freight  and  passengers  with  railways  that  run 
to  the  cities  of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island.  The 
harbor  of  New  London  is  the  best  on  the  Sound ;  there 
is  a  United  States  navy  yard  there,  and  many  yachts 
make  the  river  gay  in  summer  (p.  34).  Between  New 
London  and  Stonington  is  GKOTON,  where  shipbuilding 
(p.  21)  still  continues. 

In  recent  years  the  ports  near  New  York  have  been 
best  situated  for  growth  as  manufacturing  and  residen- 
tial centres  (Fig.  15).  BRIDGEPORT,  one  of  these,  is  the 
third  city  in  the  state.  Its  factories  produce  sewing 
machines,  ammunition,  heavy  metallic  goods,  and  many 
special  products.  STAMFORD  and  GREENWICH,  and  the 
two  cities  of  NORWALK  and  SOUTH  NORWALK,  are  other 
coast  points  engaged  in  manufacturing. 

Western  Upland.  —  The  upland  rises  to  fifteen  hundred 
feet  in  height  in  the  northwest,  and  a  number  of  peaks 
upon  it  are  several  hundred  feet  higher.  The  rivers  flow 


88 


NEW  ENGLAND 


southward  in  narrow  valleys,  which  are  followed  by  the 
railways.  One  line  crosses  the  upland  from  the  Connecti- 
cut valley  to  that  of  the  Hudson  River,  but  by  steep  grades. 
The  interests  of  the  higher  uplands  are  those  character- 
istic of  Vermont  (p.  100).  For  example,  dairy  farming  is 
the  leading  industry  of  many  towns.  The  quiet  beauty  of 
LITCHFIELD  and  other  towns  attracts  summer  residents 


FIG.  47. 
The  Naugatuck  valley.     Notice  the  upland  level.     Where  are  the  railways? 

(p.  28).  The  valley  lands  are  more  fertile  than  the  up- 
lands ;  for  instance,  much  tobacco  is  grown  in  NEW  MIL- 
FORD  in  the  Housatonic  valley.  Iron  is  still  mined  and 
smelted  in  several  towns  along  the  northwest  border  (p.  60). 
The  valley  of  the  Naugatuck,  from  its  highest  tribu- 
taries to  tidewater,  has  been  made  the  seat  of  busy 
industries  by  the  energy  and  skill  of  its  people.  The 
cities  of  WATERBURY,  ANSONIA,  and  DERBY  and  the  bor- 
oughs of  TORRINGTON  and  NAUGATUCK  are  the  important 


CONNECTICUT  89 

points.  WINSTED  is  a  little  farther  north,  and  SHELTON 
a  little  south  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Housatonic 
River.  A  long  list  of  manufactured  articles  is  produced 
in  every  place.  WATERBURY  is  the  fourth  city  of  Connect- 
icut and  is  growing  rapidly.  It  is  a  railway  centre  and 
is  therefore  closely  connected  with  the  cities  of  the  Con- 
necticut lowland.  Its  manufactures  of  metals,  are  both 
extensive  and  varied,  including  a  product  of  several  thou- 
sand watches  and  clocks  every  day  ;  but  it  is  most  noted 
as  the  centre  of  the  brass  industry  in  America. 

A  century  ago  metal  buttons  were  made  in  Waterbury,  and 
the  use  of  brass  for  this  purpose  led  to  the  rolling  of  brass, 
and  the  manufacture  of  many  other  articles  from  it.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  brass  rolled  in  the  country  is  made  in  the  Nau- 
gatuck  valley,  and  the  few  mills  now  in  operation  elsewhere 
were  established  by  Connecticut  men.  Here  has  been  devel- 
oped the  skill  necessary  to  combine  properly  the  copper  and 
zinc  to  form  brass,  and  to  roll  it  into  plates  or  draw  it  out  into 
wire  that  shall  be  exact  to  size,  even  to  the  fraction  of  a  thou- 
sandth of  an  inch.  This  most  valuable  of  all  alloys  is  easily 
worked,  and  may  be  cast,  rolled,  drawn,  or  stamped  into  shape 
for  use ;  and  when  it  is  finished,  it  is  not  only  hard  and  strong, 
but  easily  takes  a  beautiful  polish. 

DANBURY,  another  railway  centre,  has  for  a  century 
been  the  leading  community  in  the  country  for  the  manu- 
facture of  hats  and  caps.  Machinery  for  cutting  fur,  and 
for  felting  and  shaping  it  into  hats,  is  made  there. 

Eastern  Upland.  — The  eastern  upland  is  lower  than  the 
western,  and  is  mainly  within  the  Piedmont  belt.  While 
two  railways  follow  valleys  northward  from  Norwich  into 
Massachusetts,  two  others  wind  across  the  upland  from 
valley  to  valley,  connecting  Boston  and  New  York,  and 
Providence  and  Hartford,  by  the  most  direct  routes. 


90  NEW  ENGLAND 

The  section  is  closely  allied  to  Massachusetts  and  Rhode 
Island  in  its  interests ;  for  instance,  the  textile  industry 
leads  in  the  cities  and  boroughs  of  the  valleys  (p.  52). 
A  Boston  milk  train  starts  from  Willimantic  (p.  46),  and 
outside  the  manufacturing  communities  dairy  farming  is 
the  leading  industry,  as  elsewhere  in  New  England. 

NORWICH  is  the  largest  city  in  eastern  Connecticut.  Its 
position  at  the  head  of  tidewater  (p.  23)  favored  its  com- 
merce in  the  past,  as  it  favors  its  manufacturing  inter- 
ests to-day.  Its  mills  use  both  water  power  and  steam  in 
making  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  paper,  and  a  variety  of 
machines  and  other  steel  and  iron  products.  PUTNAM 
and  villages  in  THOMPSON,  KILLINGLY,  PLAINFIELD,  and 
several  towns  near  Norwich,  use  the  water  power  of  the 
Quinebaug  and  smaller  rivers  in  manufacturing  cotton 
goods  and  other  textile  products.  The  city  of  WILLI- 
MANTIC is  situated  on  the  Shetucket  River  at  the  point 
where  several  railway  lines  must  cross  each  other.  The 
cotton  thread  (p.  56)  and  sewing  silk  produced  there  have 
made  the  city's  name  familiar.  Farther  up  the  valley  the 
villages  of  STAFFORD  are  engaged  in  woollen  manufac- 
turing (p.  54). 

Young  mulberry  trees  and  silk-worm  eggs  were  brought  to 
Windham  County  before  the  Revolution,  and  the  production 
of  raw  silk  was  then  commenced.  Early  in  the  last  century, 
this  experiment  in  raising  silk  was  extensively  tried  through- 
out eastern  Connecticut,  and  sewing  silk  was  spun  on  the 
farms.  For  a  time  the  skeins  of  silk  were  used  like  money  as 
a  medium  of  exchange.  A  blight  appeared  which  destroyed 
the  trees  and  stopped  the  production  of  silk ;  but  for  many 
years  thereafter  Connecticut  was  the  leading  state  in  the 
manufacture  of  silk  cloth  and  twist  from  imported  silk  (p.  56). 


NEW  II  AMP  SHIRE  91 

NEW   HAMPSHIRE 

The  White  Mountains.  —  The  "  Granite  State,"  famous 
for  its  mountain  scenery,  attracts  many  visitors  every  year. 
In  the  southwestern  counties  lone  peaks  (Fig.  53),  like 
Monadnock,  rise  above  the  general  level  of  the  upland, 
and  northward  are  groups  of  mountains.  The  northern 
part  of  the  state  is  composed  of  such  hard  rocks  that 
most  of  the  surface  consists  of  forest-covered  mountains. 


FIG.  48. 
The  Presidential  Range  in  winter,  from  the  west.    Compare  Fig.  49. 

In  the  central  White  Mountains  the  peaks  rise  to  a  height 
of  a  mile  or  more  above  sea  level,  and  are  divided  by  deep 
valleys  into  irregular  groups  or  ranges.  The  Presidential 
Range  is  the  best  known.  During  the  summer,  trains 
ascend  the  cog-wheel  railway  to  the  .hotel  at  the  summit 
of  Mt.  Washington,  nearly  a  mile  higher  than  the  railway 
which  passes  through  Crawford  Notch. 

The  notches  are  north  and  south  valleys  which  were 
greatly  deepened  when  glacial  ice  was  crowded  through 
them.  The  Franconia,  Crawford,  and  I'inkham  notches 
afford  the  only  direct  routes  for  highways  bet  ween  the 


FIG.  49.  —  C.N.,  Crawford  Notch;  P.N.,  Pinkham  Notch;  Mt.  "W.,  Mount  Washington. 


93 


towns  of  the  Ammonoosuc  and  Androscoggin  valleys  on 
the  north  and  those  of  the  Pemigewassett  and  Saco  val- 
leys to  the  south.  For  instance,  a  highway  passes  from  LIT- 
TLETON to  PLYMOUTH  through  Franconia  Notch  (Fig.  5). 


Fid.  50. 
Crawford  Notch,  from  Mt.  Willard,  looking  south.    Compare  Fig.  49. 

There  are  large  hotels  for  summer  tourists  in  the  notches 
(Fig.  5),  and  in  some  of  the  surrounding  villages,  such  as 
BETHLEHEM  and  NORTH  CONWAY;  and  in  all  the  mountain 
towns  there  are  many  boarding  houses.  Tens  of  thousands 
of  people  come  here  yearly  to  escape  the  cares  of  city  life, 
and  to  gain  health  and  pleasure  while  climbing  the  mountain 
trails,  driving  along  picturesque  country  roads,  enjoying  out- 
door sports,  or  quietly  watching  cloud  shadows  pass  across  the 
grand  mountain  views  (p.  28). 


94  NEW  ENGLAND 

There  are  also  many  boarding  houses  and  cottage  homes  on 
the  southern  upland,  especially  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Winnipc- 
saukee,  Lake  Sunapee,  and  other  beautiful  sheets  of  water. 
Other  summer  resorts  are  along  the  coast,  at  Hampton  and 
Rye  beaches,  and  on  the  Isles  of  Shoals.  The  celebration  of 
"  Old  Home  Week  "  brings  back  to  their  childhood  home  many 
natives  of  the  state  who  now  live  in  distant  cities.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  over  five  million  dollars  is  expended  yearly  among 
two  hundred  towns  by  visitors  from  outside  the  state. 

North  of  the  White  Mountains  the  forests  are  continu- 
ous with  those  of  Maine,  and  logs  are  floated  down  the 
Androscoggin  and  the  swift  headwaters  of  the  Connecti- 
cut to  falls,  where  mills  convert  them  into  lumber,  paper 
pulp,  and  paper  (p.  41).  From  the  large  mills  of  BERLIN, 
the  only  city  north  of  the  mountains,  pulp  and  paper  are 
sent  to  all  states  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Lumber 
railways  have  been  extended  up  many  valleys  of  the 
White  Mountains  to  bring  the  logs  out  to  the  mills ;  but 
the  desire  is  increasing  that  the  forests,  so  essential  to  the 
beauty  and  attractiveness  of  the  mountain  scenery,  and 
so  useful  in  preventing  the  water  of  the  rains  and  melting 
snows  from  running  rapidly  off,  may  be  preserved  as  a 
state  reservation  (p.  76). 

Piedmont  and  Merrimac  Valley.  —  Half  the  people  of  the 
state  live  in  the  Merrimac  valley  and  in  the  southeastern 
counties,  which  belong  to  the  Piedmont  belt.  Here  are 
most  of  the  cities  and  large  towns,  whose  people  are 
mainly  employed  in  trade  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
textiles,  shoes,  and  machinery. 

The  coast  consists  mainly  of  broad  sandbar  beaches, 
built  by  the  sea  waves,  and  broad  tidal  rivers  (p.  13). 
Farther  inland  there  are  clay  beds,  affording  material  for 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE  95 

orickyards.  Sandy  plains  of  glacial  drift  cover  much  of 
the  Piedmont  country  between  the  terraced  flood-plains 
(p.  10)  of  the  Saco  and  those  of  the  Merrimac.  The 
farms  of  this  section  produce  milk  and  vegetables  for  use 
in  the  cities  and  towns,  or  to  be  sent  by  rail  to  Boston. 
Several  towns  have  creameries  for  making  butter  from 
milk  produced  by  the  herds  of  many  farms.  One  creamery 
is  at  the  State  Agricultural  College  in  DURHAM. 

PORTSMOUTH,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Piscataqua,  has  the 
only  good  harbor  of  the  state.  Its  commerce  made  it  at 
one  time  the  largest  city,  but  now  those  manufacturing 
cities  which  use  water  power,  and  which  are  connected 
with  Boston  by  railway,  are  much  larger.  A  United 
States  navy  yard  is  located  on  Portsmouth  harbor,  at 
KITTERY,  Maine.  Near  Portsmouth  the  city  of  DOVER, 
and  several  towns  like  EXETER,  are  situated  where  the 
falls  of  small  rivers  enter  tide- water  ;  and  on  falls  farther 
inland  are  ROCHESTER  and  SOMERS WORTH.  These  places 
are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  shoes,  and  products  from  wood  and  metals.  There 
are  shoe  factories  in  many  smaller  towns  of  the  state,  as 
in  FARMINGTON,  DERRY,  and  SALEM  in  this  southeastern 
district.  Half  the  manufactured  products  of  the  state,  in 
value,  consist  of  cotton  goods  and  shoes,  in  about  equal 
proportion.  Lumber,  paper,  and  other  manufactures  of 
wood  together  amount  to  one-fifth  of  all. 

The  three  largest  cities  of  the  state  —  MANCHESTER, 
the  "Queen  City,"  NASHUA,  and  CONCORD  —  are  on  the 
Merrimac.  The  water  from  above  the  dam  at  Amoskeag 
Falls  passes  into  a  system  of  canals  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  (p.  22),  supplying  the  power  for  many  of  the 
cotton  mills  and  other  factories  of  MANCHESTER  (p.  52). 


90 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Besides  cotton  cloths,  the  products  of  these  factories 
include  locomotives,  fire  engines,  woollen  cloth,  hosiery, 
clothing,  paper,  shoes,  leather,  wagons,  and  manufactures 
of  wood.  At  NASHUA  there  are  cotton  mills  whicji 
use  the  water  power  of  the  Nashua  River,  and  there 


FIG.  51. 

Manchester.    Mill  tenements,  the  old  cotton  mills,  the  new  steam  mills,  west 
of  the  Merrimac,  and  operatives'  houses. 

are  other  factories  which  produce  a  variety  of  goods. 
CONCORD  owes  its  growth  in  part  to  being  the  state  capi- 
tal. The  manufacturing  interests  (pp.  49,  62),  although 
important  and  varied,  do  not  equal  those  of  some  smaller 
cities.  LACONIA,  FRANKLIN,  and  TILTON  use  the  power 
of  the  waters  from  Lake  Winnepesaukee.  Factories  for 
knitting  hosiery  and  for  making  knitting  machinery  are 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


97 


FIG.  52. 

A  few  of  the  public  buildings  in  Concord.     The  capitol,  high  school,  govern- 
ment building  of  the  national  government,  and  state  library. 

numerous  in  Laconia.      There  are  cotton  mills  at  SUN- 
COOK. 

Upland  and  Valleys.  —  The  towns  of  the  upland  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  number  but  a  few  hundred 
people  each.  Like  most  upland  fanning  towns  of  New 
England,  they  are  slowly  losing  population.  The  total 
population  for  the  state,  however,  increases  because  of  the 
great  gains  in  the  cities  (pp.  123,  124).  There  are  many 
waterfalls  on  the  small  rivers  which  descend  through  nar- 
row valleys  to  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimac.  Railways 
follow  the  valleys,  and  since  water  power  and  ease  of  com- 
munication are  there  combined,  the  largest  villages  are 
found  in  these  valleys.  In  the  villages  along  the  Ashue- 


ENGLAND 


lot,  Contoocook,  Suncook,  and  Sugar  rivers  there  are  small 
manufacturing  plants  producing  woollen  and  cotton  cloth, 
machinery,  cutlery,  shoes,  and  other  goods.  There  are 
many  small  lumber  mills  which  work  up  the  timber  cut  on 
the  upland  and  mountains.  In  addition  to  lumber  a  great 
variety  of  wooden  wares — furniture,  chairs,  pails,  rakes, 
bobbins,  shoe  pegs,  etc.  —  are  manufactured. 


FIG.  53. 
Upland  of  southern  New  Hampshire,  north  from  Crotchett  Mountain. 

There  are  granite  quarries  in  many  towns,  but  those 
most  worked  are  near  the  railways,  notably  at  CONCORD 
and  MILFORD.  The  "redstone"  quarries  of  CONWAY 
are  the  largest.  The  mica  mines  of  southern  Grafton 
County  are  the  most  important  in  the  United  States. 

Towns  like  CLAREMONT  and  LEBANON,  situated  where 
tributaries  join  the  Connecticut,  combine  the  advantages 
of  good  soil,  water  power  on  the  tributary  stream,  and 
the  trade  of  villages  on  the  valley  roads.  The  city  of 


VERMONT  99 

KEENE  has  similar  advantages,  where  several  valleys 
centre  in  the  basin  of  the  Ashuelot  River.  Other  thriv- 
ing towns  are  NEWPORT,  near  Claremont,  and  MILFORD, 
near  Nashua.  HANOVER  is  the  seat  of  Dartmouth 
College,  an  old  and  important  institution. 

While  the  White  Mountains  are  peculiarly  characteristic  of 
New  Hampshire,  other  parts  of  the  state  are  closely  related  to 
the  adjacent  sections  of  adjoining  states.  The  northern  part 
resembles  central  Maine ;  the  industries  of  the  Piedmont  dis- 
trict and  the  southern  uplands  are  like  those  of  the  neighbor- 
ing portions  of  Massachusetts ;  and  the  western  central  section 
shares  in  the  agricultural  interests  of  Vermont.  The  towns 
reaching  back  from  the  fertile  terraces  of  the  Connecticut 
valley  have  fine  dairy  farms,  and  over  half  the  creameries  of 
the  state  (p.  102)  are  near  the  Vermont  border,  mainly  in  the 
line  of  valley  towns  from  CLAREMONT  to  LANCASTER.  The 
upland  towns  produce  much  maple  sugar  and  syrup  (p.  103). 

VERMONT 

Agriculture.  —  Agriculture  is  the  most  important  indus- 
try of  the  "  Green  Mountain  State,"  for  manufacturing  is 
less  developed  there  than  near  the  seacoast,  where  trans- 
portation of  supplies  and  products  has  long  been  easy. 
The  entertainment  of  summer  boarders  in  towns  favora- 
bly situated  on  lake  shores  or  among  the  mountains  is 
an  important  industry  of  Vermont  (p.  28). 

The  rugged  and  forested  highlands  of  the  Green  Moun- 
tains form  a  belt  ten  or  twenty  miles  wide  at  the  south,  and 
separated  into  two  ranges  at  the  north  (Fig.  4),  like  the 
letter  Y.  Mt.  Mansfield  and  several  other  well-known 
peaks  rise  over  four  thousand  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
upland  of  central  and  northwestern  Vermont,  from  which 


100  NEW  ENGLAND 

these  mountains  rise,  is  better  tilled  and  occupied  than 
most  upland  districts  of  New  England.  The  best  farms, 
however,  are  in  the  valleys,  some  of  the  more  fertile  soils 
being  on  the  terraces  (p.  10)  of  the  Connecticut  valley. 
On  the  west  is  the  broad  lowland  in  which  lies  Lake 
Champlain,  and  which  extends  from  Canada  southward  to 
the  Hudson  valley.  Throughout  the  level  lands  which 
border  the  shores  of  this  lake  and  extend  up  the  Otter 
Creek  valley,  the  farms  are  large,  and  the  clayey  soil  yields 
abundant  crops  of  grain  and  hay.  Apples  and  other  fruits 
bring  large  returns,  for  the  westerly  winds  from  over  the 
lake  tend  to  prevent  early  frosts. 

Since  Vermont  has  few  cities,  and  the  smallest  popula- 
tion of  any  New  England  state  (pp.  123  and  128),  her 
farm  products  must  find  a  market  abroad,  to  make  return 
for  the  manufactured  goods  purchased.  In  early  times  the 
crops  were  fed  to  large  flocks  of  sheep,  and  wool  was  ex- 
ported; but  to-day  butter  and  cheese  are  the  leading  prod- 
ucts. These  interests  have  given  origin  to  stock  farms. 
The  Merino  sheep  and  Morgan  horses  raised  in  the  Otter 
valley  won  a  high  reputation  in  the  past.  While  the  num- 
ber of  Vermont  sheep  has  decreased  to  one-fifth  of  the 
former  total,  the  Merino  blood  has  so  improved  them  that 
an  average  fleece  weighs  three  times  as  much  as  in  former 
days.  Driving  horses  are  again  being  carefully  bred  on 
some  Vermont  farms.  A  considerable  use  of  thorough- 
bred dairy  stock  (p.  45)  has  so  improved  the  cattle  of  the 
state  that  the  average  yield  of  butter  per  cow  is  some- 
what larger  than  in  any  other  state. 

Dairying.  —  Not  long  ago  the  old-fashioned  dasher  churn 
(Fig.  55)  and  the  wooden  cheese  press  were  as  common  on 
farms  as  the  spinning-wheel  and  loom  in  still  earlier  times ; 


VERMONT 


101 


but  to-day  nearly  all  the  cheese  is  made  in  cheese  factories, 
and  much  butter 
in  the  creamer- 
ies. Improved 
processes  and 
machinery,  un- 
der expert  care, 
produce  butter 
and  cheese  of 
high  excellence, 
which  command 
a  higher  price 
in  the  open  mar- 
ket than  simi- 
lar products 
gathered  from 

11        F  object  ill  the  picture? 

small      rarms. 

There  are  some  seventy  cheese  factories  in  the  state,  mainly 
in  its  southern  third,  and  nearly  two  hundred  creameries. 

The  Franklin 
County  creamery 
(Fig.  57)  at  ST. 
ALBANS  is  one  of 
the  largest  in  the 
world,  making  at 
times  more  than 
ten  tons  of  butter 
in  a  day.  To  sup- 
ply this  creamery 
there  are  many 
skimming  sta- 
tions in  the  vil- 


FIG.  55. 
Making  butter  on  the  farm.    What  is  the  use  of  each 


FICJ.  5(5. 
\  Franklin  County  skimming  station. 


102 


NEW  ENGLAND 


lages  for  miles  around.  To  these  the  farmers  bring  their 
milk  to  be  skimmed,  and  the  cream  is  sent  by  train  or 
wagon  to  the  creamery. 

When  milk  is  placed  in  shallow  pans  in  a  cool  place,  or 
in  deep,  narrow  cans  in  cold  water,  the  light  globules  of  fat 

slowly  rise  as 
cream.  More  cream, 
however,  is  secured 
by  the  use  of  sepa- 
rators, and  the 
separation  takes 
place  at  once.  In 
these  machines  a 
stream  of  milk 
enters  a  rapidly 
revolving  metal 
bowl,  having  two 
outlets,  one  from 
near  the  centre  for 
the  cream,  another 
for  the  heavier 
skim  milk,  which 
is  forced  toward 
the  outside  because 
of  the  rapid  revo- 
lution. The  cream 

is  then  set  in  cold  water  for  some  hours  in  order  that  the 
butter  may  be  firm ;  and  after  this  the  temperature  is  slowly 
raised  to  ripen  or  sour  the  cream  enough  to  flavor  the  butter. 
The  cream  is  placed  in  the  great  revolving  churns  of  the 
creamery,  in  which  the  fat  particles  become  united  into  little 
masses  of  butter.  The  blue,  watery  buttermilk  is  then  drawn 
off,  and  the  butter  is  twice  rinsed  in  clear  water.  After  this 
the  butter  is  worked  about  in  a  machine  to  press  out  most  of 
the  water  and  to  flavor  it  evenly  with  salt.  It  is  then 
moulded  into  "  prints  "  or  packed  in  wooden  tubs. 


FIG.  57. 
Creamery,  St.  Albans.    Rotary  churns. 


VERMONT  103 

Cheese  contains  the  curd  as  well  as  the  fat,  and  these  together 
amount  to  about  half  of  the  solids  of  milk.  The  casein  or 
curd  is  an  albuminous  substance,  like  lean  meat,  held  in  solu- 
tion in  the  fresh  milk.  Most  of  the  water  is  removed  in 
cheese  manufacture,  leaving  the  cheese  composed  of  about  a 
third  each  of  water,  fat,  and  casein.  When  thus  condensed, 
the  milk  solids  may  be  readily  preserved  and  transported. 

The  Forests.  —  Lumbering  is  a  leading  occupation  in 
the  northeastern  counties.  In  this  section  forests  cover 
much  of  the  upland,  as  they  do  across  the  border  in 
Canada  and  New  Hampshire.  NEWPORT  on  Lake  Mem- 
phremagog  is  a  centre  for  the  lumber  trade.  Small  mills 
in  many  towns  raise  the  sum  total  of  manufactures  of 
wood  in  Vermont  to  a  value  of  over  four  million  dollars. 
Sawmill  machinery  is  made  in  MONTPELIEB.  Very  many 
farms  have  orchards  of  sugar  maples,  and  Vermont  pro- 
duces more  and  better  maple  sugar  than  any  other  state. 

In  late  winter,  when  the  warm  sun  starts  the  sap,  the  maples 
are  tapped  with  small  augers,  and  the  sap  which  flows  forth 
is  collected.  It  is  then  boiled  down  until  enough  water  has 
evaporated  for  the  sugar  to  crystallize  as  the  syrup  cools. 
Formerly  the  sap  was  caught  in  wooden  troughs,  collected  by 
men  on  snow-shoes,  and  boiled  in  iron  kettles  over  open  fires, 
yielding  dark,  dirty  sugar.  Now  the  sap  is  drawn  from  the 
woods  on  tank  sleds,  or  is  conducted  through  lines  of  piping, 
to  comfortable  sugar  houses.  Here  it  is  rapidly  boiled  in  cov- 
ered evaporators,  giving  clean  and  toothsome  syrup  and  sugar. 

Quarries.  —  The  expansion  of  railways  along  the  valleys 
of  Vermont  has  led  to  the  development  of  quarrying  and 
some  manufacturing,  by  affording  an  outlet  for  products. 
In  Rutland  County  a  belt  of  slate  rocks  extends  south- 
ward from  FAIR  HAVEN  to  POULTNEY,  and  westward  into 
New  York  State.  The  Vermont  quarries  produce  more 


104  NEW  ENGLAND 

slate  (p.  108)  than  those  of  any  other  state  except  Penn- 
sylvania. Some  of  the  green  slate  contains  so  little  iron 
oxide  that  it  does  not  turn  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
and  much  of  this  is  exported  to  other  continents. 

Crossing  the  Taconic  range  from  the  slate  belt,  one 
comes  to  the  limestone  and  marble  formation  that  extends 
northward  along  the  Otter  and  Champlain  valleys.  Ver- 
mont produces  more  marble  than  any  other  state,  and 
nearly  all  that  is  used  for  monuments.  Quarries  were 
opened  soon  after  the  Revolution,  and  over  half  the  mar- 
ble used  in  the  country  since  that  time  has  come  from 
Vermont.  RUTLAND  is  the  business  centre  of  the  indus- 
try, and  the  most  important  quarries  are  in  neighboring 
towns,  such  as  WEST  RUTLAND,  PROCTOR,  and  BRANDON. 

The  marble  quarries  are  deep  rectangular  pits.  On  their 
level  floors  are  movable  railways  on  which  are  channelling 
machines  for  cutting  long,  deep  grooves  in  the  marble  floor  by 
blows  of  vertical  chisels.  Series  of  holes  are  then  drilled  by 
another  machine,  marking  off  the  stone  into  blocks,  which  are 
separated  by  the  use  of  iron  wedges,  since  blasting  would  injure 
the  marble.  At  the  mills  the  blocks  are  sawed  into  slabs.  For 
this  purpose,  sand,  borne  by  a  stream  of  water,  is  ground 
against  a  block  of  marble  by  means  of  strips  of  soft  iron,  held 
in  a  frame  and  moved  back  and  forth  with  their  edges  on  the 
stone.  This  wears  narrow  grooves  that  finally  divide  the 
blocks  into  slabs.  With  the  aid  of  sand,  other  machines  turn 
and  shape,  smooth  and  polish,  the  marble,  much  as  wood  is 
moulded  and  finished  for  use. 

Beautiful  variegated  and  black  marbles  are  quarried  in  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  state,  but  they  are  so  hard  that  it 
costs  more  to  shape  and  polish  them.  Limestone  is  quarried 
in  some  places  for  building  purposes,  or  is  burned  for  lime. 

Granite  of  varying  color  and  texture  is  quarried  in  a 
number  of  Vermont  towns,  and  BARRE  now  leads  all 


VERMONT  105 

other  places  in  the  production  of  fine  granite  for  monu- 
ments. Much  granite  is  exported  in  rough  blocks  to  be 
wrought  in  other  states.  Besides  the  workmen  in  the 
quarry  villages  about  Barre,  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
skilled  men  are  engaged  in  cutting  and  polishing  monu- 
ments and  blocks  at  the  many  extensive  works  in  the  city. 

Cities.  —  BURLINGTON,  on  Lake  Champlain,  the  largest 
city  of  the"  state,  has  developed  as  a  central  lake  port.  At 
first  the  goods  received  from  steamers  and  by  canal  boats 
from  the  Hudson  and  St.  Lawrence  valleys  were  sent 
from  Burlington  to  the  towns  farther  east  in  great  eight- 
horse  wagons.  Afterwards  railways  were  built  from  the 
lake  up  the  Otter,  Lamoille,  Winooski,  and  Missisquoi  val- 
leys, and  over  the  divide  to  the  Connecticut  valley. 

Lumber  from  Canada  is  brought  to  Burlington  to  be 
planed  and  cut  for  use,  and  the  city  is  one  of  the  large 
lumber  markets  of  the  country.  Some  of  the  lumber  is 
here  made  into  doors,  sashes,  blinds,  shade  rollers,  and 
furniture.  The  city  is  an  important  trade  centre  for  the 
country  round  about,  with  large  wholesale  and  retail 
stores  ;  and  naturally  (p.  65)  there  are  varied  manufac- 
tures, notably  of  machinery,  shoes,  and  patent  medicines. 
The  water  power  of  the  Winooski  River  is  used  by  woollen 
mills  in  the  village  of  Winooski  and  by  cotton  mills  in 
Burlington.  The  city  has  fine  public  buildings  and  resi- 
dences, which  command  beautiful  lake  and  mountain 
views.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Vermont. 

To  the  north  is  ST.  ALHANS,  a  leading  butter  market, 
and  the  seat  of  manufacturing  interests.  The  offices  and 
shops  (p.  62)  of  the  Central  Vermont  Railway  are  located 
there.  MONTPELIEK,  the  state  capital,  is  farther  east  in 
the  Winooski  valley  ;  and  nearby  is  BAHHE.  Each  city  has 


lor, 


NEW  ENGLAND 


water  power  which  is  used  by  several  factories.  NORTH- 
KIKLD  is  the  seat  of  Norwich  University.  To  the  south, 
factories  in  RUTLAND  produce  weighing  scales,  car  wheels 
(p.  61),  and  farm  tools.  The  sixth  city  of  the  state,  and 
both  the  oldest  and  smallest  city  of  New  England,  is  VER- 
GENNES.  When,  in  early  days,  most  of  the  population 
was  in  southern  Vermont,  it  was  an  important  trading 
point,  because  it  was  situated  at  the  head  of  lake  naviga- 
tion on  Otter  Creek.  MIDDLEBURY  is  the  seat  of  Middle- 


FIG.  58. 
Montpelier.     Find  the  Capitol.    Describe  the  situation  of  the  city. 

bury  College.  The  historic 'town  of  BENNINGTON,  with 
its  battle  monument,  is  still  farther  south.  Some  of  its 
people  are  employed  in  hosiery  mills. 

There  are  several  important  manufacturing  towns  in 
eastern  Vermont.  ST.  JOHNSBURY  has  the  largest  scale 
works  in  operation  anywhere,  and  Vermont  scales  are  the 
standard  in  many  countries.  There  are  a  number  of  small 
woollen  mills  (p.  54)  and  other  factories  in  towns  on  tribu- 
taries of  the  Connecticut  River.  At  BELLOWS  FALLS  the 
water  power  of  the  main  river  is  used  in  manufacturing 
paper,  machinery  for  creameries,  farming  machinery,  and 


MAINE  107 

other  goods.  The  trade  centre  of  BRATTLEBORO,  with  its 
great  manufactory  of  reed  organs,  has  developed  at  the 
point  where  West  River  joins  the  Connecticut  River. 

MAINE 

Central  and  Eastern  Maine.  —  Maine,  the  "  Pine  Tree 
State,"  has  one-half  the  area  but  only  one-eighth  the 
population  of  New  England.  Much  of  the  northern  and 
eastern  sections,  covered  by  a  vast  forest,  are  uninhabited. 

In  the  great  mills,  on  the  falls  of  the  large  rivers,  pulp 
and  chemical  fibre  for  paper,  boards  and  beams,  shingles 
and  laths,  and  other  like  products,  are  manufactured  from 
spruce  and  pine  (pp.  38-42).  BANGOR,  the  third  city  of 
Maine  in  size,  and  the  neighboring  places  of  BREWER, 
OLDTOWN,  and  ORONO,  receive  the  lumber  floated  down 
the  Penobscot,  convert  it  into  varied  products  in  wood 
and  paper,  and  ship  them  away  by  water  and  rail.  There 
are  other  secondary  interests  in  these  places,  such  as  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  machinery,  and  woollen  cloth. 
CALAIS,  with  like  industries,  is  similarly  placed  on  the 
St.  Croix  River.  The  same  manufactures  are  also  promi- 
nent at  the  seaports  of  BELFAST  and  ELLSWORTH  in 
eastern  Maine.  The  University  of  Maine  is  at  ORONO. 

There  are  many  mills  along  the  little  streams  of  the  upland 
in  which  Ijoth  hard  and  soft  wood  are  sawed  and  turned  into 
small  articles  and  novelties.  There  are  large  wood  novelty 
works  at  FARMIXOTON  and  PARIS  in  western  Maine.  The 
varied  products  of  these  mills  include  such  articles  as  furniture, 
sleds,  druggists'  boxes,  handles,  toys,  clothes-pins,  checkers, 
toothpicks,  and  bicycle  rims.  Woollen  mills  (p.  54)  are  found 
in  some  towns;  for  instance,  at  DEXTER  and  at  villages  on  the 
Piscataquis  River.  Besides  valuable  granite  quarries  ou  the 


108  NEW  ENGLAND 

upland  and  in  its  valleys,  there  are  fine  slate  quarries  in  several 
towns  of  Piscataquis  County,  producing  roofing  slate  and  slabs 
of  rough  stone  for  mill  stock.  In  the  slate  mill  at  PORTLAND 
these  are  sawed,  planed,  drilled,  and  shaped  for  use  as  interior 
finish  and  furniture  for  buildings. 

Fifty  miles  back  from  the  coast  there  is  a  belt  of  country 
producing   much   fine  white  birch  wood,  many  thousands  of 


FIG.  60. 
Hunters'  camp  in  the  Maine  woods. 

cords  of  which  are  used  yearly  for  spools.  Spool  wood  is  sawed 
into  square  strips,  or  bars,  and  then  left  in  piles  to  dry.  These 
strips  are  fed  into  automatic  machines,  which  quickly  turn 
them  into  spools  of  exact  size.  Nearly  half  of  the  spool  bars 
are  shipped  from  Portland  and  Bangor  to  Scotland,  where  they 
are  made  into  spools. 

Mountains  rise  above  the  rugged  upland,  and  from  their 
summits  one  may  see  the  many  lakes  of  the  wilderness,  gleam- 
ing like  silver  amid  the  dark  forests.  There  are  many  deer 
and  moose  and  a  few  caribou  in  these  wild  lands.  The  deer 
and  moose  are  protected  most  of  the  year  by  state  laws,  and 


MAINE  109 

the  shooting  of  caribou  has  been  prohibited  for  several  years. 
During  the  open  season,  in  the  fall,  thousands  of  sportsmen 
from  the  cities  spend  a  week  or  more  at  camps  on  remote 
lakes,  enjoying  the  crisp  air,  the  beauty  of  the  woodlands,  and 
the  excitement  of  hunting  big  game.  Nearly,  two  thousand 
men  are  registered  as  guides,  and  many  taxidermists  are  em- 
ployed in  preparing  skins,  heads,  and  antlers  as  trophies. 

The  lakes  and  streams,  well  stocked  with  trout  and  other 
fish,  attract  many  anglers.     With  guides,  they  often  take  long 
canoe  trips, — for  example,  through 
the   lake  district  of  Washington 
County,  or  down  the  west  branch 
of  the  Penobscot  from  the  "  carry  " 
at  the  head  of  Moosehead  Lake.' 


The  northern  boundary  of 
Maine  was  not  determined  ex- 
actly until  1842,  and  that  part 

of   the  state  was   not   directly 

J  FIG.  61. 

connected  with  southern  Maine  A  doe  in  winter. 

until  quite  recently,  when  the 

Bangor  and  Aroostook  railway  line  was  built.  This  sec- 
tion has  still  some  characteristics  of  the  frontier,  for, 
unlike  the  rest  of  agricultural  New  England,  it  is  increas- 
ing in  population,  as  new  land  in  the  valleys  is  cleared 
and  cultivated.  The  loose,  open  soil  of  glacial  drift  is 
easily  tilled,  and  the  gently  rolling  surface  allows  the  use 
of  farm  machinery.  Wheat  and  other  grains  are  raised 
and  flour  is  made  in  local  grist  mills ;  but  potatoes  are 
the  principal  farm  product  in  Aroostook  County. 

The  potatoes  are  planted,  cultivated,  and  dug  by  machines 
drawn  by  horses.  The  best  potatoes  are  usually  sold  for  focxl, 
or  to  be  used  as  seed  potatoes  in  other  states ;  but  the  smaller 
ones  are  taken  to  the  starch  factories.  There  the  potatoes 


110  NK\V  ENGLAND 

pass  through  machines  which  wash  them  and  grate  them  to 
pulp.  The  starch  granules  are  washed  from  the  pulp  into 
tanks,  where  they  are  allowed  to  settle.  After  another  wash- 
ing, the  white  starch  is  thoroughly  dried,  and  later  barrelled 
for  sale.  Potato  starch  is  used  as  sizing  for  giving  a  smooth, 
firm  surface  to  warp  yarns  and  to  cloth. 

Railways  have  led  to  the  growth  of  towns  as  trading 
and  manufacturing  centres  for  the  agricultural  lands  of 
the  valleys  and  the  lumber  camps  of  the  upland.  The 
more  important  are  HOULTON  at  the  south,  and  CARIBOU, 
FORT  FAIRFIELD,  and  PRESQUE  ISLE  in  the  Aroostook 
valley.  Many  sparsely  settled  townships  are  organized  as 
plantations,  but  do  not  have  the  full  powers  of  towns. 

Southwestern  Maine.  —  The  southwestern  section  pre- 
sents a  marked  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  state.  This 
corner  of  Maine  has  long  been  settled.  It  contains  half 
the  population  of  the  state,  and  most  of  the  cities  and 
large  towns  (Fig.  15).  PORTLAND  has  a  large,  deep,  and 
safe  harbor  •  on  Casco  Bay,  and  is  by  far  the  largest  city ' 
of  the  state.  It  is  a  port  for  steamships  which  transport 
grain,  cattle,  and  other  products,  received  from  one  of  the 
Canadian  railways,  to  Liverpool.  Steamship  lines  con- 
nect Portland  with  the  leading  American  coast  cities,  and 
the  railways  radiate  to  the  manufacturing  cities  and  towns 
at  the  falls  of  the  large  rivers  of  Maine  (p.  21).  Like  all 
important  trade  centres,  Portland  has  varied  manufac- 
tures (p.  65).  Here  are  the  largest  foundries  and  machine 
shops  in  Maine,  making  engines  and  machines  for  lumber- 
ing, pulp  making,  ice  cutting,  quarrying,  shipbuilding, 
farming,  and  other  industries  of  the  state.  Half  their 
product  is  sent  to  other  parts  of  the  country.  Although 
Deering  has  been  annexed  to  Portland,  the  adjoining 


MAINE  111 

manufacturing  cities  of  SOUTH    PORTLAND   and   WEST- 
BROOK  still  have  separate  governments. 

There  are  important  paper  and  lumber  mills  in  this  sec- 
tion (p.  42),  but  the  leading  manufactures  in  most  of  the 
cities,  as  in  those  of  the  low  coastal  districts  of  the  other 
New  England  states,  are  textile  goods,  shoes,  and  machin- 
ery. In  York  County  the  cities  of  BIDDEPORD  and  SACO, 
at  the  lowest  falls  of  the  Saco  River,  have  large  cotton  mills 
and  other  manufacturing  interests.  In  the  town  of  SAN- 
FORD  are  important  plush,  worsted,  and  alpaca  mills. 
North  of  Portland  on  the  Androscoggin  River,  where  falls 
afford  good  water  power,  is  LEWISTON,  with  its  great 
cotton  mills  and  their  related  bleacheries  and  dye  works 
(p.  52).  AUBURN,  the  shoe  city  of  Maine,  is  opposite  to 
Lewiston.  In  each  city  there  are  other  manufactures, 
such  as  the  making  of  woollen  cloth  in  Lewiston  and  of 
agricultural  implements  in  Auburn.  Bates  College  is  at 
Lewiston.  BRUNSWICK,  with  its  cotton  mills  and  pulp 
mill,  is  situated  where  falls  of  the  river  enter  tidewater. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Bowdoin  College,  the  oldest  college  in 
the  state.  There  are  woollen  mills  at  LISBON.  Other 
manufacturing  villages,  such  as  RUMFORD  and  JAY,  are 
above  Lewiston  on  the  Androscoggin. 

AUGUSTA,  the  state  capital,  has  the  advantage  of  water 
power  and  a  waterway  to  the  ocean  (p.  23),  and  is  the 
largest  city  on  the  Kennebec  River.  Besides  being  a  trade 
centre  for  the  valley,  it  has  both  cotton  and  paper  mills. 
There  are  other  manufacturing  communities  along  the  Ken- 
nebec, with  varied  products.  WATERVILLE,  SKOWHE- 
GAN,  and  F AIRFIELD  are  above  Augusta,  while  GARDNER 
and  HALLOWELL  are  on  tide  water.  Waterville  is  the 
seat  of  Colby  University. 


112  NEW  ENGLAND 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry  in  the  many  thinly 
populated  towns  south  of  the  forests  of  Maine.  Near  the 
cities  milk,  butter,  vegetables,  and  other  farm  products 
find  ready  sale.  Farther  into  the  country  there  are 
many  creameries,  producing  cream  and  butter,  and  some 
cheese  factories  (p.  102).  Famous  horses  have  been 
reared  on  Maine  stock  farms,  and  the  business  is  now  a 
profitable  one.  Sheep  are  often  kept  for  their  mutton  and 
wool.  There  are  large  orchards  on  many  farms,  and  fine 
winter  apples  are  exported.  Much  farm  produce  is  canned 
for  sale.  There  are  about  seventy  canneries,  which  pack 
many  thousand  cases  of  apples,  blueberries,  squashes,  and 
other  produce.  More  corn  is  canned  in  Maine  than  in 
any  other  state  except  New  York  and  Illinois. 

The  owners  of  canneries  sell  seed  corn  to  the  farmers,  and 
agree  to  buy  their  crop  of  sweet  corn  at  a  certain  price.  In  the 
early  fall  the  ears  are  carted  to  the  canneries,  where  all  who 
wish  may  share  in  the  work  of  husking.  Machines  are  used 
to  cut  off  the  milky  kernels.  These  are  sweetened,  cooked,  and 
placed  in  cans,  which  are  sealed  Avhile  yet  steaming.  The  cans 
of  corn  are  cooked  again  in  steam  retorts,  cooled,  labelled,  and 
packed  in  boxes  for  sale. 

Coast.  —  South  of  Portland  the  coast  is  but  slightly  in- 
dented, and  the  sandy  beaches  of  OLD  ORCHARD,  YORK, 
and  other  towns  are  well-known  summer  resorts.  From 
Casco  Bay  eastward  the  coast  line  is  very  irregular,  and 
many  lighthouses  are  needed  to  warn  ships  away  from  the 
rocky  islets  and  reefs.  Fishing,  shipbuilding,  and  com- 
merce once  brought  prosperity  to  most  towns  on  the 
islands  and  long  peninsulas ;  but  conditions  have  changed 
here,  as  on  the  uplands,  and  the  census  of  1900  showed  a 
decrease  in  population  for  most  places  in  the  four  coast 


MAINE 


113 


counties  of  Lincoln,  Knox,  Waldo,  and  Hancock.  How- 
ever, the  little  steamers  that  thread  the  channels  among 
the  islands  bring  many  summer  residents  to  this  bold, 
picturesque  coast,  and  some  places  have  become  prosper- 
ous through  supplying  the  wants  of  cottagers  and 
boarders.  BAR  HARBOR  on  Mount  Desert  Island  is  a 
famous  resort,  and  many  points  from  the  islands  of  Casco 
Bay  to  Calais  share  the  popular  favor.  Summer  boarders 
also  frequent  the  interior  towns  of  Maine,  and  this  state,  like 
New  Hampshire  (p.  94),  celebrates  "Old  Home  Week." 

As  the  industries  of  the  coast  towns  have  become  cen- 
tred at  places  with  good  railway  connections,  many  of 
the  young  people 
have  sought  work 
in  the  larger  cities. 
Once  every  coast  vil- 
lage sent  schooners 
to  the  fishing  banks; 
now  they  sail  only 
from  Portland  and 
a  few  small  ports. 
The  shore  fisheries 
of  Maine,  however, 
have  increased  in 
importance,  and 
more  than  seventy 
factories  are  engaged  in  canning  small  herring,  lobsters, 
and  clams.  Many  of  the  canning  factories  are  at  EAST- 
PORT  and  LUBEC  on  Passamaquoddy  Bay. 

In  Europe  little  fishes  have  long  been  canned  as  sardines, 
and  since  1875  the  industry  has  developed  here.  When  her- 
ring are  feeding  they  swim  at  the  surface  of  the  tidal  currents, 


FIG.  G2. 
A  fisherman,  dory,  and  lobster  pots. 


114  NEW  ENGLAND 

and  may  be  caught  in  weirs.  These  are  closely  woven  brush 
fences  built  out  from  the  shore  to  direct  the  fish  toward  a  netted 
enclosure  in  which  they  are  entrapped.  There  they  swim  about 
in  circles  until  dipped  out  at  low  tide.  Small  steamers  collect 
the  catch,  and  the  factory  whistles  call  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren to  the  work  of  cleaning  and  canning  the  fish  while  fresh. 
The  cleaned  fish  are  soaked  in  brine,  dried  on  wire  flakes, 
cooked  in  hot  oil  for  two  or  three  minutes,  and  packed  in  oil  in 
small  tin  boxes.  Often  the  fish  are  quickly  dried  and  cooked 
in  the  hot  air  of  ovens.  Somewhat  larger  herring  are  packed 
in  mustard,  and  full-grown  fish  are  smoked. 

BATH  is  the  shipbuilding  city  of  Maine.  Its  deep,  safe 
harbor  received  the  lumber- for  vessels  from  both  the  Ken- 
nebec  and  Androscoggin  rivers,  and  the  energy  of  its  cit- 
izens has  developed  two  plants  for  the  building  of  steel 
ships,  notwithstanding  the  distance  from  coal  and  iron. 
War  ships  are  built,  as  well  as  steamers,  schooners,  and 
barges  for  the  coasting  trade.  Not  only  here  and  at 
CAMDEN,  but  also  at  ROCKLAND,  BELFAST,  WALDOBO&O, 
and  other  deep  harbors,  the  industry  has  revived. 

The  location  of  granite  quarries,  lime  kilns,  and  brick- 
yards along  the  coast  is  important,  since  the  products  may 
be  easily  shipped  to  the  great  coast  cities.  The  deposits 
of  glacial  clays  (p.  10)  are  extensive,  and  formerly  brick 
was  largely  exported.  Quarries  at  HALLOWELL,  VINAL 
HAVEN  and  other  points  furnish  much  granite  for  build- 
ings and  paving  stones.  The  inexhaustible  limestone  beds 
in  ROCKLAND  and  adjoining  towns  have  been  worked  for 
two  centuries,  and  the  lime  produced  exceeds  in  value 
the  total  output  of  any  other  state. 

Great  changes  in  the  methods  of  quarrying  and  burning  lime, 
brought  about  by  sharp  competition,  have  resulted  in  giving  a 
cheaper  and  better  product,  Once,  the  rock  was  drilled  by 


MAINE  115 

hand,  blasted  with  powder,  hauled  to  the  kilns  in  ox  carts,  and 
burned  for  several  days  with  wood.  Now  power  drills,  run  by 
compressed  air,  prepare  the  holes  for  the  dynamite  used.  The 
rock  is  raised  on  electric  cable  ways  to  cars  that  run  to  the 
kilns  at  the  wharves.  By  the  use  of  soft  coal  and  a  forced 
draft,  the  lime  is  burned  in  modern  kilns  in  a  single  day. 

Ice  is  another  export  from  the  coast  section.  The  winters 
of  Maine  are  so  long  and  cold  that  thick  ice  forms  in  the  estu- 
aries, and  on  the  lakes  near  the  coast,  whence  it  may  be  profitably 
exported  in  vessels. 

The  large  rivers  contain  fresh  water  far  below  the  point 
where  the  tides  rise  in  their  drowned  valleys.  During  the  ice 
harvest,  several  thousand  men  and  many  horses  are  busy  on 
the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot  rivers.  The  loose  snow  is  easily 
removed,  but  that  which  is  frozen  to  the  ice  has  to  be  planed 
off.  The  clear  ice  is  then  grooved  into  square  blocks,  which 
are  floated  to  the  great  storehouses.  Here  they  are  raised 
on  inclined  ways  by  steam  power  and  packed  away.  The 
ice  houses  have  been  purchased  by  the  company  which  sup-^ 
plies  ice  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

PHYSIOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE. —  (1)  State  the  position  of  the  New 
England  States.  (2)  State  their  area.  (3)  What  about  their  popu- 
lation? (4)  Describe  the  relief.  (5)  Relate  the  history  of  the  upland. 
(0)  Describe  the  valleys.  (7)  Describe  the  mountains.  (8)  How  are 
relief  and  population  related?  (9)  Describe  the  lowland  basins  and 
.their  formation.  (10)  Compare  the  New  England  upland  and  the 
southern  Piedmont.  (11)  Describe  the  glacial  moraines.  (12)  De- 
scribe the  glacial  soil.  (18)  Tell  about  drumlins.  (14)  Tell  about 
sand  plains.  (15)  How  did  the  glacier  affect  the  drainage?  (16)  How 
were  the  terraced  plains  and  the  associated  falls  formed?  (17)  Why 
are  the  falls  of  New  England  important?  (18)  State  the  character 
of  the  coast  and  its  effect  on  industries.  (19)  Tell  the  story  of  coast 
formation.  (20)  Describe  the  more  recent  changes.  (21)  What  does 
our  government  do  on  the  coast  to  aid  commerce?  (22)  Give  an 
account  of  New  England  temperatures,  with  causes  and  effects. 


116  NEW   ENGLAND 

(23)  Describe    the    effects    of    cyclonic    storms    on    the    weather. 

(24)  What  is  the  characteristic  summer  weather? 

SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTKIAL  DEVELOPMENT.  —  (1)  Tell  the  story  of 
the  settlement  of  New  England.  (2)  Describe  the  character  of  the 
settlers.  (3)  What  led  to  the  formation  of  several  colonies?  (4)  What 
were  the  steps  in  the  extension  of  the  frontier?  (5)  Describe  life  on 
the  frontier.  (6)  Give  an  account  of  the  beginnings  of  commerce. 

(7)  What  seaports  rose  to  importance?     Why  many?     (8)  Sketch 
the  development  of  shipbuilding.     (9)  What  effect  had  the  building 
of  railways  on  seaports?      (10)    Why  were  factories   built?     With 
what  effect  on  population?     (11)  Relate  the  causes  leading  to  the 
growth    of    manufacturing    cities    like    Lowell.     (12)  Like    Salem. 
(13)  Hartford.     (14)  Fall   River.     (15)  Worcester.     (16)  Merideu. 
(17)  Tell  the  story  of   the  extension   of   railways   and  their    rela- 
tion to  relief  of  the  land.     (18)  Tell  about  the  combination  of  the 
railways.      (19)    What  are  some  of  the   causes   and  effects  of   the 
decrease  of  population  on  the  uplands?      (20)  What  influences  are 
bringing  prosperity  to  some  country  districts?     (21)  Describe  the  de- 
velopment of  roads.     (22)  Describe  state  roads.      (23)  What  effects 
has  the  summer  vacation  system  had  on  country  towns  ?      (24)    Tell 
about  the  races  that  have  come  to  New  England  cities.    (25)  Describe 
city  tenement  life.      (26)    Wrhat  did  the  settlers  do  for   education  ? 

(27)  Give    an    account    of    the    district    schools    and    academies. 

(28)  What  has  been  done  to   improve  the  school  system   in  recent 
years?     (29)    Of  what  value  is  free  education  to  New  England? 

INDUSTRIES.  Fishing. —  (1)  Speak  of  the  importance  of  the  fish- 
eries. (2)  Recount  the  development  of  the  industry.  (3)  At  what 
ports  does  it  centre?  (4)  Tell  about  the  coast  summer  resorts. 
(5)  Describe  the  method  of  catching  cod  and  halibut.  (6)  Tell  about 
their  preparation  for  market.  (7)  Describe  the  life  of  a  fisherman. 

(8)  How  are  mackerel  caught? 

Lumbering.  —  (9)  Contrast  the  woodlands  of  southern  New  Eng- 
land in  colonial  days  and  now.  (10)  Give  an  account  of  the  Maine 
forest  and  its  value.  (11)  Describe  the  methods  of  logging.  (12)  Tell 
about  the  life  of  the  lumbermen.  (13)  Describe  driving.  (14)  What 
are  the  principal  lumber  products  ?  (15)  Tell  about  centres  of  lumber 
manufacture.  (16)  The  methods  of  manufacture.  (17)  The  ship- 
ment of  .lumber.  (18)  How  is  paper  made  from  wood?  (19)  How 
important  is  this  industry?  (20)  Where  are  pulp  mills  placed? 

Agriculture.  —  (21)  Contrast  the  past  and  present  importance  of 
farming.  (22)  Contrast  past  and  present  methods.  (23)  Why 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  117 

are  dairy  farms  and  market  gardens  so  important?  (24)  Compare 
the  cows  of  colonial  days  with  present  dairy  herds.  (25)  How  are 
cows  fed?  (26)  How  is  milk  marketed?  (27)  Describe  the  work 
of  a  market  gardener  in  winter.  (28)  Describe  his  work  in  summer. 
(29)  What  are  leading  farm  and  garden  products  ? 

Quarrying. —  (30)  Why  is  quarrying  important  in  New  England? 
(31)  For  what  is  granite  used,  and  why?  (32)  How  is  it  quarried  and 
cut  for  use  ?  (33)  Where  are  the  most  important  granite  quarries  ? 

Textile  Manufactures.  —  (34)  Why  was  cloth  made  in  the  colonies? 
(35)  How  was  it  made?  (36)  Relate  the  development  of  textile 
manufacturing.  (37)  Relate  the  development  of  cotton  manufactur- 
ing in  and  near  Rhode  Island.  (38)  Tell  about  the  mill  cities  north 
of  Boston.  (39)  What  about  cotton  manufacturing  in  Fall  River? 

(40)  Name  and  locate  the  important  centres  of  cotton  manufacture. 

(41)  What  are  the  products  of  cotton  mills?     (42)  What  changes 
in  cotton  manufacturing  are  now  continuing  ?      (43)  How  is  woollen 
manufacturing  distributed,  and  why  ?     (44)  Where  is  the  manufacture 
of  worsted  goods  centred  ?     (45)  How  do  woollen  and  worsted  goods 
differ  ?     (46)   What  different  kinds  of  mills  are  engaged  in  cloth  manu- 
facture?     (47)  Give  an  account  of  carpet  manufacture.      (48)  Tell 
about  cotton  thread;  knit  goods;  manufactures  of  linen  ;  of  silk. 

Shoe  Manufacture.  —  (49)  Tell  about  tanning  in  colonial  times. 
(50)  Tell  about  its  present  distribution.  (51)  Describe  the  early 
manufacture  of  shoes ;  the  development  of  the  industry.  (52)  What 
has  been  the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  machinery?  (53)  De- 
scribe the  distribution  of  shoe  factories  and  centres  of  production. 
(54)  Where  are  rubber  shoes  made? 

Manufactures  of  Metals. —  (55)  Tell  about  the  early  iron  industry. 
(56)  Why  are  there  no  important  mines  here  to-day?  (57)  What 
kinds  of  metal  goods  are  now  made  here,  and  why?  (58)  Name 
and  locate  the  centres.  (59)  Why  is  the  manufacture  of  machinery 
impoi-tant?  (60)  Where  are  different  kinds  of  vehicles  made? 

Commerce.  —  (61)  In  what  respects  are  smaller  and  larger  centres 
of  trade  alike  ?  (62)  What  different  causes  have  led  to  the  growth 
of  Boston?  (63)  Describe  its  business  as  a  wool  market;  a  cotton 
market ;  a  financial  centre ;  a  shoe  and  leather  market.  (64)  Why 
do  large  trade  centres  have  many  and  varied  industries?  (65)  What 
foods  are  prepared  for  sale  in  and  neaf  Boston  ? 

MASSACHUSETTS.  —  (1)  What  is  the  population  of  Massachusetts? 
(2)  How  is  it  distributed?  (3)  Describe  the  physiography  of  the 
Boston  Basin.  (4)  Recount  the  growth  of  cities  at  the  head  of  Boston 


118  NEW  ENGLAND 

Harbor,  and  its  causes.  (5)  Tell  about  the  Metropolitan  commis- 
sions. ((>)  (Jive  an  account  of  the  circle  of  communities  outside  the 
Boston  Hasin.  (7)  Name,  locate,  and  give  important  facts  about  the 
cities  of  the  Merrimac  valley.  (8)  Tell  about  Worcester  and  its  neigh- 
bors. (9)  Do  the  same  for  the  cities  of  Bristol  County.  (10)  For 
what  are  Plymouth  and  Gloucester  important?  (11)  Tell  about  Cape 
Cod  and  its  life.  (12)  Tell  about  whale  fishing.  (13)  Describe  the 
raising  of  cranberries.  (14)  Account  for  the  distribution  of  popula- 
tion in  western  Massachusetts.  (15)  Name,  locate,  and  tell  about  the 
important  places  in  the  Connecticut  valley.  (10)  How  is  paper  made 
from  rags?  (17)  Tell  about  the  towns  of  the  central  upland  and  its 
valleys.  (18)  Tell  about  places  in  the  Berkshire  valley. 

RHODE  ISLAND.  ^-(1)  Account  for  the  density  of  population 
and  its  distribution  ?  (2)  What  are  the  most  important  manu- 
factured products?  (3)  Sketch  the  changes  in  the  commerce  of 
Providence.  (4)  Give  an  account  of  its  manufactures.  (5)  Give  an 
account  of  its  suburban  growth.  (6)  Tell  about  the  important  places 
and  industries  northward  from  Providence.  (7)  Do  the  same  for 
places  to  the  northwestward.  (8)  What  important  places  and  indus- 
tries are  found  to  the  southwest  of  Providence?  (9)  Answer  the 
same  question  for  Bristol  County.  (10)  Draw  and  describe  Narra- 
gansett  Bay.  (11)  Recount  the  changes  in  the  interests  of  Newport. 
(12)  Name  the  leading  summer  resorts.  (13)  Tell  about  the  fish- 
eries. (14)  Contrast  farming  on  the  lowland  with  that  of  the  up- 
lands. (15)  Contrast  the  people  of  the  iipland  farms  and  those  of 
the  cities.  (16)  Describe  southwestern  Rhode  Island;  the  surface; 
drainage ;  coast ;  industries ;  and  largest  towns. 

CONNECTICUT. —  (1)  Describe  the  Connecticut  valley  lowland,  and 
its  importance.  (2)  Tell  about  agriculture  on  the  lowland.  (3)  What 
can  you  say  about  its  industrial  development  ?  (4)  What  is  the 
characteristic  of  Connecticut  manufactures?  Which  are  most  im- 
poi'tant?  (5)  Give  an  account  of  Hartford.  (6)  For  what  are  its 
neighbors  to  the  north  and  east  important?  (7)  What  places  and 
industries  are  found  to  the  south  of  Hartford  ?  (8)  Tell  about  New 
Haven,  —  its  development,  industries,  and  parks.  (9)  Describe  the 
coast.  (10)  Give  the  leading  facts  about  the  oyster  industry. 
(11)  Name,  locate,  and  mention  important  facts  about  the  ports  near 
Rhode  Island.  (12)  Do  the  same  for  ports  near  New  York.  (13)  Tell 
about  the  western  upland  and  its  interests.  (14)  Tell  about  the  cities 
of  the  Naugatuck  valley.  (15)  Give  important  facts  about  the 
manufacture  of  brassware.  (1(5)  For  what  is  Danbury  important? 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  119 

(17)  Give   an    account   of  the   eastern   upland    and   its   industries. 

(18)  Tell   about   Norwich   and   villages   in    the   Quinebaug  valley. 

(19)  Give  an  account  of  Willimantic  and  Stafford.     (20)  What  can 
you  tell  about  silk  production  and  manufacture  ? 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  —  (1)  Describe  the  mountains  of  New  Hamp- 
shire. (2)  Describe  the  notches  of  the  White  Mountains.  (3)  Tell 
about  the  summer  resorts.  (4)  Tell  about  the  forests  and  their 
products.  (5)  Give  the  main  facts  about  Berlin.  (6)  Describe  the 
surface  of  southeastern  New  Hampshire.  (7)  What  are  its  industries 
and  products  ?  (8)  Tell  about  Portsmouth  and  cities  near  it.  (9)  Tell 
about  cities  on  the  Merrimac.  (10)  Give  an  account  of  £he  southern 
upland.  (11)  Give  an  account  of  its  industries  and  products. 

(12)  Name,  locate,  and  give  leading  facts  about  its  towns  and  cities. 

(13)  What  interest  leads  in  the  Connecticut  valley? 

VERMONT.  —  (1)  What  is  the  most  important  state  industry?    Why? 

(2)  Describe   the   sections   of    the   state    and    their   characteristics. 

(3)  Why  are  stock  farms  important?     (4)  Give  an  account  of  the 
dairy  industry  and  the  manufacture  of  butter.     (5)  Tell  about  lumber- 
ing.    (6)  How  is  maple  sugar  made  ?     (7)  Tell  about  slate ;  where 
quarried;    importance.      (8)   Tell   about    marble;    where   quarried; 
importance;    how   quarried   and   worked.     (9)  Tell   about   granite; 
where   quarried;  importance.     (10)  Relate  the  development  of  Bur- 
lington.    (11)  Describe  its  industries.     (12)  Give  an  account  of  the 
important  places  in  western  Vermont.     (13)  In  eastern  Vermont. 

MAINE.  —  (1)  Contrast  Maine  and  Massachusetts  as  to  area  and 
population.  (2)  Give  an  account  of  Bangor  and  its  neighbors. 
(3)  Locate  and  tell  about  Calais,  Belfast,  and  Ellsworth.  (4)  Describe 
the  industries  of  central  Maine.  (5)  Tell  about  the  manufacture  of 
spools.  (6)  Describe  the  forests  as  a  game  preserve.  (7)  What  can 
you  tell  about  Aroostook  County  and  its  products?  (8)  Tell  about  the 
raising  of  potatoes  and  manufacture  of  starch.  (9)  Give  important 
facts  about  the  towns  of  Aroostook  County.  (10)  Contrast  south- 
western Maine  with  the  rest  of  the  state.  (11)  Give  an  account  of 
Portland.  (12)  Give  an  account  of  the  leading  places  in  York  County. 
(13)  Do  the  same  for  the  leading  places  on  the  Androscoggin,  and  on 
the  Kennebec.  (14)  Tell  about  Maine  agriculture.  (15)  Tell  about 
the  canning  of  corn.  (16)  Describe  the  coast  line  of  Maine.  (17)  De- 
scribe its  past  and  present  industries.  (18)  Tell  about  the  canning  of 
fish.  (19)  Give  the  main  facts  about  shipbuilding ;  about  the  granite 
industry;  about  the  lime  industry;  about  ice.  (20)  What  are  the 
important  coast  towns  and  cities  and  their  industries? 


120  NEW  ENGLAND 


SUGGESTIONS 

HOME  GEOGRAPHY.  —  Study  the  geography  of  your  own  town  or 
city  while  studying  New  England.  Enlist  the  aid  of  friends.  Get 
them  to  take  groups  of  pupils  on  field  trips  and  on  visits  to  factories. 
Some  geologist  can  help  you  to  find  local  illustrations  of  the  sur- 
face features  named  in  the  text.  Search  for  the  reasons  for  past 
changes  and  present  characteristics.  What  has  determined  the 
location  of  roads  and  railways,  and  the  distribution  of  population  ? 
Make  large  maps  showing  these  features.  Talk  with  older  townsfolk, 
read  local  histories,  and  tell  your  classmates  what  you  find  about  the 
settlement  of  the  town  and  its  industrial  and  social  development. 
What  should  be  done  to  improve  your  town  and  ensure  its  prosperity  ? 

COLLECTIONS.  —  Help  to  make  careful  and  detailed  collections  for 
the  school  to  illustrate  each  important  industry  of  your  town.  Show 
the  raw  materials  used,  the  steps  in  manufacture,  and  the  finished 
products.  Cut  from  trade  journals  pictures  of  the  machinery  used, 
and  place  these  with  the  specimens.  Place  the  best  description  of  the 
industry  and  its  processes,  written  by  any  member  of  the  class,  perma- 
nently with  the  specimens.  Arrange  exchanges  with  other  schools,  and 
thus  secure  collections  illustrating  all  important  New  England  indus- 
tries. Carefully  arrange  the  collections  in  cabinets  or  boxes  so  that 
they  will  be  preserved,  and  that  they  may  be  easily  presented  for  study. 
Collections  of  New  England  minerals  and  woods  with  related  pictures 
are  valuable.  Secure  from  townspeople  for  a  few  days  a  loan  collec- 
tion to  illustrate  life  and  industries  a  century  ago. 

PICTURES.  —  Make  a  collection  of  photographs  of  home  scenery, 
and  make  notes  beside  them  regarding  the  surface  features  shown  and 
their  relation  to  life.  Secure  photographs  of  local  industries.  Collect 
pictures  of  New  England  scenery  and  life,  and  arrange  them  so  as 
to  illustrate  the  different  topics  studied.  Compare  the  pictures  with 
maps  of  the  same  places.  Good  pictures  are  contained  in  the  booklets 
of  the  Boston  and  Maine,  Bangor  and  Aroostook,  and  Central  Vermont 
railways.  These  are  given  away. 

MAPS.  —  The  three  southern  New  England  States,  and  parts  of  the 
others,  have  been  carefully  mapped  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey.  For  $2.00  the  Director  of  the  Survey  will  send  from  Wash- 
ington one  hundred  assorted  map  sheets,  which  could  include  enough 
maps  of  the  home  town  to  give  one  to  each  pupil,  and  in  addition 
others  of  other  sections.  Single  sheets  cost  five  cents.  Suggestions 


SUGGESTIONS  121 

as  to  the  use  of  these  maps  in  elementary  schools  were  prepared  by 
Professor  W.  M.  Davis,  and  were  published  by  the  Boards  of  Educa- 
tion of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

A  school  near  the  coast  should  obtain  from  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey,  Washington,  D.C.,  a  chart  of  the  neighboring 
coast  waters,  and  study  the  coast  forms  and  their  effect  on  industries 
and  population.  Cancelled  charts  of  some  waters,  excellent  for  school 
use,  may  be  obtained,  without  cost,  through  the  member  of  Congress 
for  the  district  in  which  the  school  is  placed. 

BOOKS.  —  Ask  the  librarian  to  place  on  the  reference  shelves  of  your 
public  library,  books  on  the  geography,  history,  industries,  and  life  of 
New  England,  which  will  both  help  and  interest  you.  The  New  Eng- 
land Magazine  has  described  and  illustrated  the  history  and  industries 
of  many  cities  and  towns.  Ask  the  representative  to  the  state  legis- 
lature from  your  district  to  secure  for  the  school  copies  of  the  reports 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Industrial  Statistics  and  other  state  docu- 
ments. Send  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.,  for 
a  list  of  the  publications  of  the  Agricultural  Department.  Some  of 
the  Farmers'  Bulletins  tell  about  New  England  farming,  and  will  be 
sent  free.  Secure  from  the  state  superintendent  of  schools,  or  from 
the  last  report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  a  list 
of  the  colleges  and  other  higher  schools  of  the  state,  and  make  a  map 
showing  their  distribution.  Send  for  catalogues  of  these  schools  for 
your  school  library.  Which  school  would  you  prefer  to  attend? 

Read  "  Good  Old  Times,"  by  Elijah  Kellogg,  as  a  picture  of  fron- 
tier life  in  colonial  New  England.  His  Elm  Island  stories  tell  of  early 
life  on  the  coast  of  Maine.  Read  R.  H.  Dana's  "  Two  Years  Before 
the  Mast."  For  the  best  pictures  of  New'  England  child  life  in  the 
last  century,  read  C.  D.  Warner's  "Being  a  Boy";  T.  B.  Aldrich's 
"  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy  " ;  "A  New  England  Girlhood,"  by  Lucy  Larcorn ; 
and  "  A  New  England  Boyhood  "  by  E.  E.  Hale.  A  good  account  of 
the  development  of  industries  is  given  in  "  American  Inventors  and 
Inventions,"  a  book  written  for  schools  by  W.  A.  Mowry.  ' 

WRITTEN  WORK (1)  If  you  live  in  the  city,  write  an  account  of 

a  vacation  in  the  country  or  at  the  seashore.  If  you  live  in  the 
country,  tell  of  a  visit  to  the  city,  or  about  the  summer  visitors  to  your 
town.  (2)  Perhaps  your  teacher,  through  the  superintendent,  will 
arrange  for  the  school  to  exchange  letters  _jvith  children  living  in 
different  surroundings  elsewhere  in  the  state,  the  letters  describing 
the  home  life  and  work  of  the  writers.  (-5)  Tell  how  the  roads  of 
your  town  or  city  are  made  or  mended.  Which  are  best,  and  why? 


122  NEW  ENGLAND 

(4)  Write  a  report  of  an  address  given  the  class,  by  some  business 
man  of  the  town,  concerning  the  industry  with  which  he  is  related. 

SPECIAL  ASSIGNMENTS.  —  Make  a  study  of  some  topic  in  New 
England  history  assigned  by  your  teacher,  and  report  on  it  to  the 
class.  For  instance,  —  early  explorers ;  the  settlement  of  New  Hamp- 
shire; the  Pequot  War;  British  attacks  on  the  New  England  coast 
during  the  Revolution ;  slavery  in  New  England ;  Ethan  Allen ;  the 
Ashburton  Treaty,  etc.  (2)  Similarly  study  some  topic  in  local  gov- 
ernment assigned  you,  by  consulting  the  town  or  city  officers  and  your 
friends.  (3)  Make  a  study  of  some  home  industry  assigned  you. 
Discover  what  favored  its  establishment  and  growth.  Describe  its 
methods  through  the  year;  its  tools  and  machinery;  the  raw  mate- 
rials ;  the  products ;  and  the  related  trade  or  commerce. 

TOPICAL  STUDY  OF  A  STATE.  —  These  topics  may  be  used  as  the 
basis  for  a  final  review,  or  as  a  guide  for  moi'e  extended  study. 

I.  Physiography.  —  (1)  Position:  state  and  show  by  drawings ;  ad- 
vantages ;  boundaries,  their  history  and  causes.     (2)  Form :  describe 
and  draw.    (3)  Size  :  square  miles,  compared  with  states  and  countries; 
illustrative  diagrams  and  maps.    (4)  Relief:  character;  history;  effects 
on  life;  glacial  forms;  their  distribution,  formation,  effects;  sections  of 
state.    (5)  Drainage:  maps  of  the  main  divides ;  the  larger  river  basins; 
the  rivers;   lakes  and  waterfalls,  —  character,  cause,  effects;   uses  of 
rivers  and  lakes.    (6)  Climate :  temperature ;  winds ;  rainfall ;  seasonal 
changes ;  effects  on  industries ;  effects  on  people. 

II.  Natural  Resources.  —  (1)  Minerals:  kinds ;  distribution ;  impor- 
tance.    (2)  Forests :  past  and  present  distribution ;  value ;  preservation. 

III.  People.  —  (1)  Settlement:  history;  character  of  settlers;  char- 
acter of    later   immigrants;    causes   and  effects.       (2)    Population: 
past  and  present;  rate  of  growth;  distribution;  changes  in  country 
and  city.      (3)    Education :   development  of   public   schools ;   higher 
schools  in  the  state;  libraries.     (4)    Government:  state  constitution; 
its  nature;  state  officers;  duties;  election.    City  and  town  governments. 

IV.  Industries.  —  (1)  Development:  pioneer  conditions ;  early  com- 
merce;  rise  of  manufacturing;    means  of  communication.     (2)  List 
of  industries.    For  every  one,  — its  cause,  development,  location,  impor- 
tance ;   the  raw  materials,  processes,  and  products;  the  sale  of  products. 

V.  Cities  and   Towns.  —  (1)    Map.      (2)    Position,  size,   cause   of 
location  and  growth,  industries,  characteristics,  historic  interest. 

VI.  Review  by  Physiographic  Sections.  —  Their  natural  advantages, 
industries,  and  the  character  and  distribution  of  the  population. 


APPENDIX 

POPULATION  OF  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES :    1790  to  1900 
POPULATION 


CENSUS  YEABS. 

MASS. 

E.I. 

CONN. 

N.H. 

MAINE. 

VT. 

1790   .   .   . 

378,787 

68,825 

237,946 

141,885 

96,540 

85,425 

1800   .   .   . 

422,845 

69,122 

251,002 

183,858 

151,719 

154,465 

1810   .  .  . 

472,040 

76,931 

261,942 

214,460 

228,705 

217,895 

1820   .  .  . 

523,159 

83,015 

275,148 

244,022 

298,269 

235,966 

1830   .  .  . 

610,408 

97,199 

297,675 

269,328 

399,455 

280,652 

1840   .  .  . 

737,699 

108,830 

309,978 

284,574 

501,793 

291,948 

1850   .  .  . 

994,514 

147,545 

370,792 

317,976 

583,169 

314,120 

1860   .  .  . 

1,231,066 

174,620 

460,147 

326,073 

628,279 

315,098 

1870   .  .  . 

1,457,351 

217,353 

537,454 

318,300 

626,915 

330,551 

1880   .  .  . 

1,783,085 

276,531 

622,700 

346,991 

648,936 

332,286 

1890   .  .  . 

2,238,943 

345,506 

746,258 

376,530 

661,086 

332,422 

1900   .  .  . 

2,805,346 

428,556 

908,355 

411,588 

694,466 

343,641 

PERCENTAGE  OF   INCREASE 


CENSUS  TEARS. 

MASS. 

R.I. 

CONN. 

N.H. 

MAINE. 

VT. 

1800      .     .     . 

11.6 

0.4 

5.4 

29.5 

57.2 

80.8 

1810      .     .     . 

11.6 

11.3 

4.3 

16.6 

50.7 

41. 

1820      .     .     . 

10.8 

7.9 

5. 

13.7 

30.4 

8.2 

1830      .     .     . 

16.6 

17.1 

8.1 

10.3 

33.9 

18.9 

1840      .     .     . 

20.8 

12. 

4.1 

5.6 

25.6 

4. 

1850      .     .     . 

34.8 

35.6 

19.6 

11.7 

16.2 

7.5 

123 


APPENDIX 


CKNSUS  YKARS. 

MASS. 

K.I. 

CONK. 

N.H. 

MAINE. 

VT. 

I860      .     .     . 

23.7 

18.4 

24. 

2.5 

7.7 

0.3 

1870      .     .     . 

18.3 

24.5 

16.8 

— 

— 

4.9 

1880      .     .     . 

22.3 

27.2 

15.8 

9. 

3.5 

0.5 

1890      .     .     . 

26.5 

24.9 

19.8 

8.5 

1.9 

— 

1900      .     .     . 

25.2 

24. 

21.7 

9.3 

5. 

3.3 

QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Which  state  had  the  smallest  population  for  many 
years?  Which  has  now  the  fewest  inhabitants?  Explain  this  (pp.  77  and 
98).  (2)  Which  states  had  the  greatest  percentage  of  increase  in  popu- 
lation at  first  ?  Which  after  the  middle  of  the  last  century  ?  Explain 
this  (pp.  19  and  22).  (3)  What  portion  of  the  total  population  was  in 
Massachusetts  in  1790  ?  In  1900  ?  Why  the  difference  (p.  67)  ? 

GROWTH   IN  POPULATION   OF  THE   LARGEST   CITIES. 


1900 

1880 

1860 

1840 

1820 

1800 

Boston      .     .     . 

560,892 

362,839 

177,840 

93,383 

43,298 

24,937 

Providence    .     . 

175,597 

104,857 

50,666 

23,171 

11,767 

7,614 

Worcester     .     . 

118,421 

58,291 

24,960 

7,497 

2,962 

2,411 

New  Haven  .     . 

108,027 

62,882 

39,267 

12,960 

7,147 

4,049 

Fall  River     .     . 

104,863 

48,961 

14,026 

6,738 

1,594 

— 

Lowell      .     .     . 

94,969 

59,475 

36,827 

20,796 

— 

— 

Cambridge    .    . 

91,886 

52,669 

26,060 

8,409 

3,295 

2,453 

Hartford  .     .     . 

79,850 

42,015 

29,152 

9,468 

4,726 

5,347 

Bridgeport    .     . 

70,996 

27,643 

13,299 

3,294 

1,500 

— 

Lynn  .... 

68,513 

38,274 

19,083 

9,367 

4,515 

2,837 

Lawrence      .     . 

62,559 

39,151 

17,639 

— 

— 

— 

New  Bedford     . 

62,442 

26,845 

22,300 

12,087 

3,947 

4,361 

Springfield    .     .  ' 

62,059 

33,340 

15,199 

10,985 

3,914 

2,312 

Somerville    .     . 

61,643 

24,933 

8,025 

— 

— 

— 

Manchester  .     . 

56,987 

32,630 

20,107 

3,235 

761 

— 

Portland  .     .     . 

50,145 

33,810 

26,341 

15,218 

8,581 

3,704 

Salem  .... 

35,956 

27,563 

22,252 

15,082 

11,346 

9,457 

QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Salem  is  now  the  twenty-second  city  of  New  Eng- 
land in  population.     What  was  its  rank  in  1800  ?     Why  the  difference 


APPENDIX 


125 


(p.  21)?  (2)  Compare  the  cities  of  coast  and  interior  as  to  their  growth. 
Review  text  on  development  of  New  England,  and  consider  the  reasons 
for  the  differences.  (3)  Contrast  Boston  and  its  suburbs,  Cambridge 
and  Somerville  (p.  30).  (4)  Contrast  Fall  River  and  Lowell  (pp.  52,  53)  ; 
Hartford  and  Bridgeport ;  Portland  and  Manchester ;  New  Bedford  and 
Springfield.  Find  causes  of  differences. 

POPULATION   OF   CITIES   AND   LARGE   TOWNS,  1900. 


CITIES   OF  MASSACHUSETTS 

Beverly 13,884 

Boston 560,892 

Brockton 4~0,063 

Cambridge 91,886 

Chelsea 34,072 

Chicopee 19,167 

Everett 24,336 

Fall  River 104,863 

Fitchburg 31,531 

Gloucester 26,121 

Haverhill 37,175 

Holyoke 45,712 

Lawrence 62,559 

Lowell 94,969 

Lynn 68,513 

Maiden 33,664 

Marlboro 13,609 

Medford 18,244 

Melrose 12,962 

New  Bedford 62,442 

Newburyport 14,478 

Newton 33,587 

North  Adams 24,200 

Northampton 18,643 

Pittsfield 21,766 

Quincy 23,899 

Salem 35,956 

Somerville 61,643 

Springfield 62,059 

Taunton 31,036 

Waltham 23,481 

Woburn 14,254 

Worcester 118,421 

TOWNS  —  MASSACHUSETTS 

Abington 4,489 

Adams 11,134 

Amesbury 9,473 

Amherst 5,028 


Andover 6,813 

Arlington 8,603 

Athol 7,061 

Attleboro 11,335 

Barnstable 4,364 

Belmont 3,929 

Blackstone 5,721 

Braintree 5,981 

Brookline 19,935 

Bridgewater 5,806 

Canton 4,584 

Chelmsford 3,984 

Clinton 13,667 

Concord 5,652 

Dalton 3,014 

Danvers 8,542 

Dartmouth 3,669 

Dedham 7,457 

Easthampton 5,603 

Easton 4,837 

Falmouth 3,500 

Framingham 11,302 

Franklin 5,017 

Gardner 10,813 

Grafton 4,869 

Great  Barrington  ....  5,854 

Greenfield 7,927 

Hingham 5,059 

Hudson 5,454 

Hyde  Park 13,244 

Ipswich 4,658 

Lee 3,506 

Lenox 2,942 

Leominster 12,392 

Lexington 3,831 

Mansfield 4,006 

Marblehead 7,582 

Methuen 7,512 

Middleboro 6,885 

Milford 11,376 


126 


APPENDIX 


Millbury 

Milton 

Montague  (Turner's  Falls) 

Natick 

Needham 

North  Andover      .     .     .     . 
Nortli  Attleboro    .     .     .     . 

Northbridge 

North  Brookfield  .     .     .     . 

Norwood 

Orange     . 

Palmer 

Peabody  

Pepperell 

Plymouth 

Provincetown 

Randolph     .     .     .     .     .     . 

Reading . 

Revere 

Rockland     ...... 

Rockport 

Saugus    

Southbridge      .     .     .     .  , . 

South  Hadley 

Spencer  

Stoneham 

Stoughton    

Swampscott 

Tewksbury 

Wakefield 

Ware 

Watertown 

Webster 

Wellesley 

Westboro 

Westfield 

West  Springfield   .     .     .     . 

Weymouth 

Whitman     ...... 

Williamstown 

Winchendon 

Winchester 

Wiuthrop 


4,460 
6,578 
6,150 
9,488 
4,016 
4,243 
7,253 
7,036 
4,587 
5,480 
5,520 
7,801 
11,523 
3,701 
9,592 
4,247 
3,993 
4,969 
10,395 
5,327 
4,592 
5,084 
10,025 
4,526 
7,627 
6,197 
5,442 
4,548 
3,683 
9,290 
8,263 
9,706 
8,804 
5,072 
5,400 
12.310 
"  7,105 
11,324 
6,155 
5,013 
5,001 
7,248 
6,058 


CITIES  OF  ERODE  ISLAND 

Central  Falls 18,167 

Newport 22,034 

Pawtucket 39,231 


Providence 115,597 

Woonsocket 28,204 


TOWNS  — RHODE   ISLAND 

Barrington 1,135 

Bristol 6,901 

Burrillville 6,317 

Coventry 5,279 

Cranston JUL343 

Cumberland "~87U2"5 

East  Providence    ....  12J3.8 

Jamestown 1,498 

Johnston 4,305 

Lincoln 8,937 

Little  Compton      ....  1,132 

North  Kingstown  ....  4,194 

South  Kingstown  ....  4,972 

Tiverton 2,977 

Warren 5,108 

Warwick 21.316 

Westerly 7,541 


TOWNS  —  CONNECTICUT 
AND  INCORPORATED  CITIES  AND  BOROUGHS 

Ansonia,  city 12,681 

Branford 5,706 

Branford,  borough  .  .  2,473 

Bridgeport,  city  ....  74Uli|6_ 

Bristol 9,643 

Bristol,  borough  .  .  .  6,268 

Danbury 19,474 

Danbury,  city  ....  16,537 

Derby,  city 7,930 

East  Hartford 6,406 

Enfield 6,699 

Fairfield 4,489 

Glastonbury 4,260 

Greenwich 12,172 

Greenwich,  borough  .  .  2,420 

Groton 5,962 

Hamdeu 4,626 

Hartford,  city 29J150 

Huntington 5,572 

Shelton,  borough  .  .  .  2,837 

Killingly 6,835 

Danielson,  borough     .     .  2,823 


APPENDIX 


127 


Litchfield 3,214 

Litchfield,  borough  .  .  1,120 

Manchester 10,601 

Meriden 28,695 

Meriden,  city  ....  24,296 

Middletown 17,486 

Middletown,  city  .  .  .  9,589 

Milford 3,783 

Naugatuck,  borough  .  .  .  10,541 

New  Britain 28,202 

New  Britain,  city  .  .  .  25,998 

New  Haven,  city  ....  108.027 

New  London,  city.  .  .  .  17,548 

New  Milford 4,804 

Norwalk 19,932 

Norwalk,  city    ....  6,125 

So.  Norwalk,  city  .  .  .  6,591 

Norwich 24,637 

Norwich,  city  ....  17,251 

Orange 6,995 

West  Haven,  borough  .  5,247 

Plainfield 4,821 

Portland 3,856 

Putnam 7,348 

Putnam,  city  ....  6,667 

Seymour 3,541 

Southington 5,890 

Southington,  borough  .  3,411 

Stafford 4,297 

Stafford  Springs  .  .  .  2,460 

Stamford 18,839 

Stamford,  city  ....  15,997 

Stonington 8,540 

Stonington,  borough  .  .  2,278 

Stratford 3,657 

Thompson 6,442 

Torrington 12,453 

Torrington,  borough  .  .  8,360 

Vernon 8,483 

Rockville,  city  ....  7,287 

Wallingford 9,001 

Wallingford,  borough  .  6,737 

Waterbury 51,139 

Waterbury,  city  .  .  .  IS^goJ 

Westport 4,017 

Winchester 7,763 

Winsted,  borough  .  .  .  6,804 

Windham  .  .  .  .  .  .  10,137 

Willimantic,  city  .  .  .  8,937 

Windsor 3,614 


CITIES  OF  NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

Berlin 8,886 

Concord 19,632 

Dover 13,207 

Franklin 5,846 

Keene 9,165 

Laconia 8,042 

Manchester 56.987 

Nashua 23,898 

Portsmouth 10,637 

Rochester 8,466 

Somersworth 7,023 


TOWNS  — NEW   HAMPSHIRE 

Bethlehem 1,261 

Claremont 6,498 

Conway 3,154 

Derry 3,583 

Exeter 4,922 

Farmington 2,265 

Goffstown 2,528 

Haverhill 3,414 

Hillsboro 2,254 

Lancaster 3,190 

Lebanon 4,965 

Lisbon 2,221 

Littleton 4,066 

Milford 3,739 

Newmarket 2,892 

Newport 3,126 

Pembroke  (Suncook)      .     .  3,183 

Peterboro 2,527 

Pittsfield 2,129 

Plymouth 1,972 

Salem 2,041 

Walpole 2,693 

Winchester 2,274 

Wolfboro 2,390 


CITIES  OF  MAINE 

Auburn 12,951 

Augusta 11,683 

Bangor 21,850 

Bath 10,477 

Belfast 4,615 

Biddeford 16,145 

Brewer 4,835 


128 


APPENDIX 


Calais  

7,655 

Rumford      

3  770 

Eastport  

5,311 

St.  George    

2  206 

Ellsworth     

4,297 

Sanford   .                   . 

(i*Di8 

Gardiner  . 

6,501 

South  Berwick 

3  188 

Hallowell     

2,714 

Skowhegan  

5  180 

Levviston      

23,761 

Thomaston  

2  688 

5,763 

Vinal  Haven    .     .     . 

2  358 

Portland  

50,  14f> 

Waldoboro  .... 

3  145 

Rockland     

8,150 

Winslow  

2  277 

Saco    

6,122 

Yarmouth    .... 

2  274 

South  Portland     .... 

6,287 

York  

2,668 

Waterville    

9,477 

7,283 

CITIES  OF  VERMONT 

Barre  

8,448 

Burlington   

18,640 

TOWNS  —  MAINE 

Montpelier  

"67M5 

Berwick                                  . 

2  280 

Rutland  

11,499 

Bridgton  

2,868 

St.  Albans    
Vergennes    

6,239 
1,753 

Bristol     
Brunswick   

2,572 
6,806 

Bucksport     

2,339 

TOWNS  -VERMONT 

Camden        .          .... 

2,825 

Barre  ... 

3  346 

Caribou  

4,758 

Barton     ... 

2  790 

Chelsea    

3,092 

Bennington  

8J33JL 

Dexter     

2,941 

Brandon  

2,759 

East  Livermore 

2,129 

Brattleboro  . 

6  640 

Eden  (Bar  Harbor)    .     .     . 
Fairfield  

4,379 

3,878 

Colchester  (Winooski)  .     . 
'Derby      

5,352 
3,274 

Farmiugton  
Fort  Fairfield    .     .     .     .     . 

3,288 
4,181 

Essex  
Fair  Haven  

2,203 
2,999 

Fort  Kent    

2,528 

Hardwick     

2,466 

Freeport                          .     . 

2,339 

Hartford  

3,817 

Gorham  

2,540 

Lyndon   

2,956 

Hampden     .     .     .     .     . 

2,182 

Middlebury  

3,045 

Houlton  

4  686 

Morristown       

2.583 

Jay      

2,758 

Newbury  

2,125 

Jonesport     

2,124 

Newport  .          

3,113 

Kennebunk 

3  228 

Northfield     

2,855 

Kennebunkport     .... 

2,123 

Poultney      

3,108 

Kittery    

2,872 

Proctor    ....... 

2,136 

Lisbon     ....          .     . 

3  603 

Randolph     .          .... 

3,141 

Liubec      

3,005 

Rockingham  (Bellows  Falls) 

5,809 

Madison  

2,764 

Richford  

2,421 

Norway   

'  2,902 

St.  Johnsbury  

7,010 

Orono      

3,257 

Springfield   

3,432 

Paris  ...          .  "".     . 

3  225 

Swanton                 .     .          . 

3  745 

Pittsfield       

2,891 

Waterbury  

2,810 

Presque  Isle      .     .     .     .<•». 

3,804 

West  Rutland  

2,914 

Rockporf. 

2,314 

2,557 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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